Chapter 2. File system internals

The v_data field in the struct vnode type is a pointer to an external data structure used to represent a file within a concrete file system. This field must be initialized after allocating a new vnode and must be set to NULL before releasing it (see Section 2.8.4, “Deallocation of a vnode”).

This external data structure contains any additional information to describe a specific file inside a file system. In an on-disk file system, this might include the file's initial cluster, its creation time, its size, etc. As an example, the NetBSD's Fast File System (FFS) uses the in-core memory representation of an inode as the vnode's data field.

A vnode operation is implemented by a function that follows the following contract: return an integer describing the operation's exit status and take a single void * parameter that carries a structure with the real operation's arguments.

Using an external structure to describe the operation's arguments instead of using a regular argument list has a reason: some file systems extend the vnode with additional, non-standard operations; having a common prototype makes this possible.

The following table summarizes the standard vnode operations. Keep in mind, though, that each file system is free to extend this set as it wishes. Also note that the operation's name is shown in the table as the macro used to call it (see Section 2.2.4, “Executing vnode operations”).

The v_op field in the struct vnode type is a pointer to the vnode operations vector, which maps logical operations to real functions (as seen in Section 2.2.2, “vnode operations”). This vector is file system specific as the actions taken by each operation depend heavily on the file system where the file resides (consider reading a file, setting its attributes, etc.).

As an example, consider the following snippet; it defines the open operation and retrieves two parameters from its arguments structure:

int
egfs_open(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_open_args *)v)->a_vp;
        int mode = ((struct vop_open_args *)v)->a_mode;

        ...
}

The whole set of vnode operations defined by the file system is added to a vector of struct vnodeopv_entry_desc-type entries, with each entry being the description of a single operation. The purpose of this vector is to define a mapping from logical operations such as vop_open or vop_read to real functions such as egfs_open, egfs_read. It is not directly used by the system under normal operation. This vector is not tied to a specific layout: it only lists operations available in the file system it describes, in any order it wishes. It can even list non-standard (and unknown) operations as well as lack some of the most basic ones. (The reason is, again, extensibility by third parties.)

There are two minor restrictions, though:

Consider the following vector as an example:

const struct vnodeopv_entry_desc egfs_vnodeop_entries[] = {
        { vop_default_desc, vn_default_error },
        { vop_open_desc, egfs_open },
        { vop_read_desc, egfs_read },
        ... more operations here ...
        { NULL, NULL }
};

As stated above, this vector is not directly used by the system; in fact, it only serves to construct a secondary vector that follows strict ordering rules. This secondary vector is automatically generated by the kernel during file system initialization, so the code only needs to instruct it to do the conversion.

This secondary vector is defined as a pointer to an array of function pointers of type int (**vops)(void *). To tell the kernel where this vector is, a mapping between the two vectors is established through a third vector of struct vnodeopv_desc-type items. This is easier to understand with an example:

int (**egfs_vnodeop_p)(void *);
const struct vnodeopv_desc egfs_vnodeop_opv_desc =
        { &egfs_vnodeop_p, egfs_vnodeop_entries };

Out of the file-system's scope, users of the vnode layer will only deal with the egfs_vnodeop_p and egfs_vnodeop_opv_desc vectors.

All vnode operations are subject to a very strict locking protocol among several other call and return contracts. Furthermore, their prototype makes their call rather complex (remember that they receive a structure with the real arguments). These are some of the reasons why they cannot be called directly (with a few exceptions that will not be discussed here).

The NetBSD kernel provides a set of macros and functions that make the execution of vnode operations trivial; please note that they are the standard call procedure. These macros are named after the operation they refer to, all in uppercase, prefixed by the VOP_string. Then, they take the list of arguments that will be passed to them.

For example, consider the following implementation for the access operation:

int
egfs_access(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_vp;
        int mode = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_mode;
        struct ucred *cred = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_cred;
        struct proc *p = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_p;

        ...
}

A call to the previous method could look like this:

result = VOP_ACCESS(vp, mode, cred, p);

For more information, see the vnodeops(9) manual page, which describes all the mappings between vnode operations and their corresponding macros.

File systems are attached to the virtual directory tree by means of mount points. A mount point is a redirection from a specific directory^[1] to a different file system's root directory and is represented by the generic struct mount type, which is defined in src/sys/sys/mount.h.

A file system extends the static part of a struct mount object by attaching a custom data structure to its mnt_data field. As with vnodes, this happens when allocating the structure.

The kind of information that a file system stores in its mount structure heavily depends on its implementation. Generally, it will typically include a pointer (either physical or logical) to the file system's root node, used as the starting point for further accesses. It may also include several accounting variables as well as other information whose context is the whole file system attached to a mount point.

A file system driver exposes a well-known interface to the kernel by means of a set of public operations. The following table summarizes them all; note that they are sorted according to the order that they take in the VFS operations vector (see Section 2.3.3, “The VFS operations structure”).

The list of VFS operations may eventually change. When that happens, the kernel version number is bumped.

Regardless of mount points, a file system provides a struct vfsops structure as defined in src/sys/sys/mount.h that describes itself type is. Basically, it contains:

Consider the following code snipped that illustrates the previous items:

const struct vnodeopv_desc * const egfs_vnodeopv_descs[] = {
        &egfs_vnodeop_opv_desc,
        ... more pointers may appear here ...
        NULL
};

struct vfsops egfs_vfsops = {
        MOUNT_EGFS,
        egfs_mount,
        egfs_start,
        egfs_unmount,
        egfs_root,
        egfs_quotactl,
        egfs_statvfs,
        egfs_sync,
        egfs_vget,
        egfs_fhtovp,
        egfs_vptofh,
        egfs_init,
        NULL, /* fs_reinit: optional */
        egfs_done,
        NULL, /* fs_mountroot: optional */
        vfs_stdextattrctl,
        egfs_vnodeopv_descs
};

The kernel needs to know where each instance of this structure is located in order to keep track of the live file systems. For file systems built inside the kernel's core, the VFS_ATTACH macro adds the given VFS operations structure to the appropriate link set. See GNU ld's info manual for more details on this feature.

VFS_ATTACH(egfs_vfsops);

Standalone file system modules need not do this because the kernel will explicitly get a pointer to the information structure after the module is loaded.

On-disk file systems are those that store their contents on a physical drive.

Helper file systems are just a set of functions used to easily implement other file systems. As such, they can be considered as libraries. These are:

Most file systems pass information from the userland mount utility to the kernel when a new mount point is set up; this information generally includes user-tunable properties that tell the kernel how to mount the file system. This data set is encapsulated in what is known as the mount arguments structure and is often named after the file system, prepending the _args string to it.

Keep in mind that this structure is only used to communicate the userland and the kernel. Once the call that passes the information finishes, it is discarded in the kernel side.

The arguments structure is versioned to make sure that the kernel and the userland always use the same field layout and size. This is achieved by inserting a field at the very beginning of the object, holding its version.

For example, imagine a virtual file system — one that is not stored on disk; for real (and very similar) code, you can look at tmpfs. Its mount arguments structure could describe the ownership of the root directory or the maximum number of files that the file system may hold:

#define EGFS_ARGSVERSION 1
struct egfs_args {
        int ea_version;

        off_t ea_size_max;

        uid_t ea_root_uid;
        gid_t ea_root_gid;
        mode_t ea_root_mode;

        ...
}

XXX: To be written. Slightly describe how a userland mount utility works.

The fs_mount operation is called whenever a user issues a mount command from userland. It has the following prototype:

The caller, which is always the kernel, sets up a struct mount object and passes it to this routine through the mp parameter. It also passes the mount arguments structure (as seen in Section 2.6.1, “Mount call arguments”) in the data parameter. There are several other arguments, but they do not important at this point.

The mp->mnt_flag field indicates what needs to be done (remember that this operation is semantically overloaded). The following is an outline of all the tasks this function does and also describes the possible flags for the mnt_flag field:

if (mp->mnt_flag & MNT_GETARGS) {
        struct egfs_args args;
        struct egfs_mount *emp;

        if (mp->mnt_data == NULL)
                return EIO;
        emp = (struct egfs_mount *)mp->mnt_data;

        args.ea_version = EGFS_ARGSVERSION;

        ... fill the args structure here ...

        return copyout(&args, data, sizeof(args));
}

int error;
struct egfs_args args;

if (data == NULL)
        return EINVAL;

error = copyin(data, &args, sizeof(args));
if (error)
        return error;

if (args.ea_version != EGFS_ARGSVERSION)
        return EINVAL;

emp = (struct egfs_mount *)malloc(sizeof(struct egfs_mount), M_EGFSMOUNT, M_WAITOK);
KASSERT(emp != NULL);

/* Fill the emp structure with file system dependent values. */
emp->em_root_uid = args.ea_rood_uid;
... more comes here ...

mp->mnt_data = emp;
mp->mnt_flag = MNT_LOCAL;
mp->mnt_stat.f_namemax = MAXNAMLEN;
vfs_getnewfsid(mp);

return set_statvfs_info(path, UIO_USERSPACE, args.ea_fspec, UIO_SYSSPACE, mp, p);

Unmounting a file system is often easier than mounting it, plus there is no need to write a file system dependent userland utility to do an unmount. This is accomplished by the fs_unmount operation, which has the following signature:

The function's outline is similar to the following:

Here is a simple example of the previous outline:

int error, flags;
struct egfs_mount *emp;

flags = (mntflags & MNT_FORCE) ? FORCECLOSE : 0;

error = vflush(mp, NULL, flags);
if (error != 0)
        return error;

emp = (struct egfs_mount *)mp->mnt_data;
... free emp contents here ...

free(mp->mnt_data, M_EGFSMNT);
mp->mnt_data = NULL;

return 0;

A vnode, like any other system object, has to be allocated before it can be used. Similarly, it has to be released and deallocated when unused. Things are a bit special when it comes to handling a vnode, hence this whole section dedicated to explain it.

XXX: A graph could be excellent to have at this point.

A vnode is first brought to life by the getnewvnode(9) function; this returns a clean vnode that can be used to represent a file. This new vnode is also marked as used and remains as such until it is marked inactive. A vnode is inactivated by calling releasing the last reference to it. When this happens, VOP_INACTIVE is called for the vnode and the vnode is placed on the free list.

The free list, despite its confusing name, contains real, live, but not currently used vnodes. It is like a big LRU list. vnodes can be brought to life again from this list by using the vget(9) function, and when that happens, they leave the free list and are marked as used again until they are inactivated. Why does this list exist, anyway? For example, think about all the commands that need to do path lookups on /usr. Anything in /usr/bin, /usr/sbin, /usr/pkg/bin and /usr/pkg/sbin will need the /usr vnode. If it had to be regenerated from scratch each time, it could be slow. Therefore, it is kept around on the free list.

vnodes on the free list can also be reclaimed which means that they are effectively killed. This can either happen because the vnode is being reused for a new vnode (through getnewvnode) or because it is being shut down (e.g., due to a revoke(2)).

Note that the kern.maxvnodes sysctl(9) node specifies how many vnodes can be kept active at a time.

vnodes are tagged to identify their type. The tag attached to them must not be used within the kernel; it is only provided to let userland applications (such as pstat(8)) to print information about vnodes.

Note that its usage is deprecated because it is not extensible from dynamically loadable modules. However, since they are currently used, each file system defines a tag to describe its own vnodes. These tags can be found in src/sys/sys/vnode.h and vnode(9).

vnodes are allocated in three different scenarios:

It is important to recall that vnodes are unique per file. Special care is taken to avoid allocating more than one vnode for a single physical file. Each file system has its own method to achieve this; as an example, tmpfs keeps a map between file system nodes and vnodes, where the former are its keys.

However, please do note that there may be files with no in-core representation (i.e., no vnode). Only active and inactive but not-yet-reclaimed files are represented by a vnode.

A simple example that illustrates vnode allocation can be found in the tmpfs_alloc_vp function of src/sys/fs/tmpfs/tmpfs_subr.c.

XXX: I think fs_vget has to be described in this section.

The procedure to deallocate vnodes is usually trivial: it generally cleans up any file system specific information that may be attached to the vnode.

Keep in mind that there is a single place in the code where vnodes can be detached from their underlying nodes and destroyed. This place is in the vnode reclaim operation. Doing it from any other place will surely cause further trouble because the vnode may still be active or reusable (see Section 2.8.1, “vnode's life cycle”).

Note that the v_data pointer must be set to null before exiting the reclaim vnode operation or the system will complain because the vnode was not properly cleaned.

This function is also in charge of releasing the underlying real node, if needed. For example, when a file is deleted the corresponding vnode operation is executed — be it a delete or a rmdir — but the vnode is not released until it is reclaimed. This means that if the real node was deleted before this happened, the vnode would be left pointing to an invalid memory area.

Consider the following sample operation:

int
egfs_reclaim(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_reclaim_args *)v)->a_vp;

        struct egfs_node *node;

        node = (struct egfs_node *)vp->v_data;

        cache_purge(vp);
        vp->v_data = NULL;
        node->en_vnode = NULL;

        if (node->en_nlinks == 0)
                ... free the underlying node ...

        return 0;
}

However, keep in mind that releasing (marking it inactive) a vnode is not the same as reclaiming it. The real reclaiming will often happen at a much later time, unless explicitly requested. The operations that remove files from disk often execute the reclaim code on purpose so that the vnode and its associated disk space is released as soon as possible. This can be done by using the vrecycle(9) function.

As an example:

int
egfs_inactive(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_inactive_args *)v)->a_vp;

        struct egfs_node *node;

        node = (struct egfs_node *)vp->v_data;

        if (node->en_nlinks == 0) {
                /* The file was deleted from the disk; reclaim it as
                 * soon as possible to free its physical space. */
                vrecycle(vp, NULL, p);
        }

        return 0;
}

vnodes have, as almost all other system objects, a locking protocol associated to them to avoid access interferences and deadlocks. These may arise in two scenarios:

Each vnode operation has a specific locking contract it must comply to,, which is often different from other operations (this makes the protocol very complex and ought to be simplified). These contracts are described in vnode(9) and vnodeops(9). You can also find them in the form of assertions in tmpfs' code, should you want to see them expressed in logical notation.

As regards vnode operations, each file system implements locking primitives in the vnode layer. These primitives allow to lock a vnode (vop_lock), unlock it (vop_unlock) and test whether it is locked or not (vop_islocked). Given that these operations are common to all file systems, the genfs pseudo-file system provides a set of functions that can be used instead of having to write custom ones. These are genfs_lock, genfs_unlock and genfs_islocked and are always used except for very rare cases.

It is very important to note that vop_lock is never used directly. Instead, the vn_lock(9) function is used to lock vnodes. Unlocking, however, is in charge of vop_unlock.

A path name component is a non-divisible part of a complete path name — one that does not contain the slash (/) character. Any path name that includes one or more slashes in it can be divided in two or more different atoms.

Path name components are represented by struct componentname objects (defined in src/sys/sys/namei.h), heavily used by several vnode operations. The following are its most important fields:

To resolve a path name (or to lookup a path name) means to get a vnode that uniquely represents based on a previously specified path name, be it absolute or relative.

The NetBSD kernel uses a two-level iterative algorithm to resolve path names. The first level is file system independent and is carried on by the namei(9) function, while the second one relies on internal file system details and is achieved through the lookup vnode operation.

The following list illustrates the lookup algorithm. Lots of details have been left out from it to make things simpler; namei(9) and vnodeops(9) contain all the missing information:

XXX: <wrstuden> I think you simplified the description too much. You left out lookup(), and ascribe certain actions to namei() when they are performed by lookup(). While I like your attempt to keep it simple, I think both namei() and lookup() need describing. lookup() takes a path name and turns it into a vnode, and namei() takes the result and handles symbolic link resolution.

XXX: <jmmv> I currently don't know very much about the internals of lookup() and namei(), so I've left the simplified description in the document, temporarily.

There are several reasons behind this two-level lookup mechanism, but they have been left over for simplicity. XXX: The 4.4BSD book gives them all; we should either link to it or explain these here in our own words (preferably the latter).

One of the arguments passed to the lookup algorithm is a hint that specifies the kind of lookup to execute. This hint specifies whether the lookup is for a file creation (CREATE), a deletion (DELETE) or a name change (RENAME). The file system uses these hints to speed up the corresponding operation — generally to cache some values that will be used while processing the real operation later on.

For example, consider the unlink(2) system call whose purpose is to delete the given file name. This operation issues a lookup to ensure that the file exists and to get a vnode for it. This way, it is able to call the vnode's remove operation. So far, so good. Now, the operation itself has to delete the file, but removing a file means, among other things, detaching it from the directory containing it. How can the remove operation access the directory entry that pointed to the file being removed? Obviously, it can do another lookup and traverse a potentially long directory. But is this really needed?

Remember that unlink(2) first got a vnode for the entry to be removed. This implied doing a lookup, which traversed the file's parent directory looking for its entry. The algorithm reached the entry once, so there is no need to repeat the process once we are in the vnode operation itself.

In the above situation, the second lookup is avoided by caching the affected directory entry while the lookup operation is executed. This is only done when the DELETE hint is given.

The same situation arises with file creations (because new entries may be overwrite previously deleted entries in on-disk file systems) or name changes (because the operation needs to modify the associated directory entry).

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_create.

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_link.

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_remove.

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_rename.

vnodes have an operation to read data from them (vop_read) and one to write data to them (vop_write) both called by their respective system calls, read(2) and write(2). The read operation receives an offset from which the read starts, a number that specifies the number of bytes to read (length) and a buffer into which the data will be stored. Similarly, the write operation receives an offset from which the write starts, the number of bytes to write and a buffer from which the data is read.

There is also the mmap(2) system call which maps a file into memory and provides userland direct access to the mapped memory region.

char buffer[1024];
lseek(fd, 100, SEEK_SET);
read(fd, buffer, 1024);

int
egfs_read(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_read_args *)v)->a_vp;
        struct uio *uio = ((struct vop_read_args *)v)->a_uio;

        int error;
        struct egfs_node *node;

        node = (struct egfs_node *)vp->v_data;

        if (uio->uio_offset < 0)
                return EINVAL;

        if (uio->uio_resid == 0 || uio->uio_offset >= node->en_size)
                return 0;

        if (vp->v_type == VREG) {
                error = 0;
                while (uio->uio_resid > 0 && error == 0) {
                        int flags;
                        off_t len;
                        void *win;

                        len = MIN(uio->uio_resid, node->en_size -
                            uio->uio_offset);
                        if (len == 0)
                                break;

                        win = ubc_alloc(&vp->v_uobj, uio->uio_offset,
                            &len, UBC_READ);
                        error = uiomove(win, len, uio);
                        flags = UBC_WANT_UNMAP(vp) ? UBC_UNMAP : 0;
                        ubc_release(win, flags);
                }
        } else {
                ... left out for simplicity (if needed) ...
        }

        return error;
}

Within the NetBSD kernel, a file has a set of standard and well-known attributes associated to it. These are:

The NetBSD kernel uses the struct vattr type (detailed in vattr(9)) to handle all these attributes all in a compact way. Based on this set, each file system typically supports these attributes in its node representation structure (unless they are fictitious and faked when accessed). For example, FFS could store them in inodes, while FAT could save only some of them and fake the others at run time (such as the ownership).

A struct vattr instance is initialized by using the VATTR_NULL macro, which sets its vnode type to VNON and all of its other fields to VNOVAL, indicating that they have no valid values. After using this macro, it is the responsibility of the caller to set all the fields it wants to the correct values. The consumer of the object shall not use those fields whose value is unset (VNOVAL).

It is interesting to note that there are no vnode operations that match the regular system calls used to set the file ownership, its mode, etc. Instead, nodes provide two operations that act on the whole attribute set: vop_getattrs to read them and vop_setattrs to set them. The rest of this section describes them.

int
egfs_getattr(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_getattr_args *)v)->a_vp;
        struct vattr *vap = ((struct vop_getattr_args *)v)->a_vap;

        struct egfs_node *node;

        node = (struct egfs_node *)vp->v_data;

        VATTR_NULL(vap);

        switch (node->en_type) {
        case EGFS_NODE_DIR:
                vap->va_type = VDIR;
                break;
        case ...:
        ...
        }
        vap->va_mode = node->en_mode;
        vap->va_uid = node->en_uid;
        vap->va_gid = node->en_gid;
        vap->va_nlink = node->en_nlink;
        vap->va_flags = node->en_flags;
        vap->va_size = node->en_size;
        ... continue filling values ...

        return 0;
}

int
egfs_setattr(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_setattr_args *)v)->a_vp;
        struct vattr *vap = ((struct vop_setattr_args *)v)->a_vap;
        struct ucred *cred = ((struct vop_setattr_args *)v)->a_cred;
        struct proc *p = ((struct vop_setattr_args *)v)->a_p;

        /* Do not allow setting unsettable values. */
        if (vap->va_type != VNON || vap->va_nlink != VNOVAL || ...)
                return EINVAL;

        if (vap->va_flags != VNOVAL) {
                ... set node flags here ...
                if error, return it
        }

        if (vap->va_size != VNOVAL) {
                ... verify file type ...
                error = VOP_TRUNCATE(vp, size, 0, cred, p);
                if error, return it
        }

        ... etcetera ...

        return 0;
}

Each node has four times associated to it, all of them represented by struct timespec objects. These times are:

Given that these times reflect the last accesses to the underlying files, they need to be modified extremely often. If this was done synchronously, it could impose a big performance penalty on files accessed repeatedly. This is why time updates are done in a delayed manner.

Nodes usually have a set of flags (which are only kept in memory, never written to disk) that indicate their status to let asynchronous actions know what to do. These flags are used, among other things, to indicate that a file's times have to be updated. They are set as soon as the file is changed but the times are not really modified until the vnode's update operation (vop_update) is called; see vnodeops(9) for more details on this.

vop_update is called asynchronously by the kernel from time to time. However, a file system may opt to execute it on purpose as it wishes; such a situation may be when it is mounted synchronously, as it will be updating the times as soon as the changes happen.

The file system is in charge of ensuring that a request is valid or not, permission-wise. This is done with the vnode's access operation (vop_access), which receives the caller's credentials and the requested access mode. The operation then checks if these are compatible with the current attributes of the file being accessed.

The operation generally follows this structure:

For example:

int
egfs_access(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_vp;
        int mode = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_mode;
        struct ucred *cred = ((struct vop_access_args *)v)->a_cred;

        struct egfs_node *node;

        node = (struct egfs_node *)vp->v_data;

        if (vp->v_type == VDIR || vp->v_type == VLNK || vp->v_type == VREG)
                if (mode & VWRITE &&
                    vp->v_mount->mnt_flag & MNT_RDONLY)
                        return EROFS;
        }

        if (mode & VWRITE && mode->tn_flags & IMMUTABLE)
                return EPERM;

        return vaccess(vp->v_type, node->en_mode, node->en_uid,
            node->en_gid, mode, cred);
}

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_symlink.

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_readlink.

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_mkdir.

XXX: To be written. Describe vop_rmdir.

The vop_readdir operation reads the contents of directory in a file system independent way. Remember that the regular read operation can also be used for this purpose, though all it returns is the exact contents of the directory; this cannot be used by programs that aim to be portable (not to mention that some file systems do not support this functionality).

This operation returns a struct dirent object (as seen in dirent(5)) for each directory entry it reads from the offset it was given up to that offset plus the transfer length. Because it must read entire objects, the offset must always be aligned to a physical directory entry boundary; otherwise, the function shall return an error. This is not always true, though: some file systems have variable-sized entries and they use another metric to determine which entry to read (such as its ordering index).

It is important to note that the size of the resulting struct dirent objects is variable: it depends on the name stored in them. Therefore, the code first constructs these objects (settings all its fields by hand) and then uses the _DIRENT_SIZE macro to calculate its size, later assigned to the d_reclen field. For example:

struct egfs_dirent de;
struct egfs_node *node;
struct dirent d;

... read a directory entry from disk into de ...
... make node point to the de.ed_fileid node ...

switch (node->ed_type) {
case EGFS_NODE_DIR:
        d.d_type = DT_DIR;
case ...:
...
}

d.d_namlen = de.ed_namelen;
(void)memcpy(d.d_name, de.ed_name, de.ed_namelen);
d.d_name[de.ed_namelen] = '\0';
d.d_reclen = _DIRENT_SIZE(&d);

With this in mind, the operation also ensures that the offset is correct, locates the first entry to return and loops until it has exhausted the transmission's length. The following illustrates the process:

int
egfs_readdir(void *v)
{
        struct vnode *vp = ((struct vop_readdir_args *)v)->a_vp;
        struct uio *uio = ((struct vop_readdir_args *)v)->a_uio;
        int *eofflag = ((struct vop_readdir_args *)v)->a_eofflag;

        int entry_counter;
        int error;
        off_t startoff;
        struct egfs_dirent de;
        struct egfs_node *dnode;
        struct egfs_node *node;

        if (vp->v_type != VDIR)
                return ENOTDIR;

        if (uio->uio_offset % sizeof(struct egfs_dirent) > 0)
                return EINVAL;

        dnode = (struct egfs_node *)vp->v_data;

        ... read the first directory entry into de ...
        ... make node point to the de.ed_fileid node ...

        entry_counter = 0;
        startoff = uio->uio_offset;
        do {
                struct dirent d;

                ... construct d from de ...

                error = uiomove(&d, d.d_reclen, uio);

                entry_counter++;
                ... read the next directory entry into de ...
                ... make node point to the de.ed_fileid node ...
        } while (error == 0 && uio->uio_resid > 0
            && de is valid)


        /* Important: Update transfer offset to match on-disk
         * directory entries, not virtual ones. */
        uio->uio_offset = entry_counter * sizeof(egfs_dirent);

        if (eofflag != NULL)
                *eofflag = (de is invalid?);

        return error;
}

File systems that support NFS take some extra steps in this function. See vnodeops(9) for more details. XXX: Cookies and the eof flag should really be explained here.