selfuncs.c

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/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * selfuncs.c
 *    Selectivity functions and index cost estimation functions for
 *    standard operators and index access methods.
 *
 *    Selectivity routines are registered in the pg_operator catalog
 *    in the "oprrest" and "oprjoin" attributes.
 *
 *    Index cost functions are registered in the pg_am catalog
 *    in the "amcostestimate" attribute.
 *
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1996-2013, PostgreSQL Global Development Group
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California
 *
 *
 * IDENTIFICATION
 *    src/backend/utils/adt/selfuncs.c
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */

/*----------
 * Operator selectivity estimation functions are called to estimate the
 * selectivity of WHERE clauses whose top-level operator is their operator.
 * We divide the problem into two cases:
 *      Restriction clause estimation: the clause involves vars of just
 *          one relation.
 *      Join clause estimation: the clause involves vars of multiple rels.
 * Join selectivity estimation is far more difficult and usually less accurate
 * than restriction estimation.
 *
 * When dealing with the inner scan of a nestloop join, we consider the
 * join's joinclauses as restriction clauses for the inner relation, and
 * treat vars of the outer relation as parameters (a/k/a constants of unknown
 * values).  So, restriction estimators need to be able to accept an argument
 * telling which relation is to be treated as the variable.
 *
 * The call convention for a restriction estimator (oprrest function) is
 *
 *      Selectivity oprrest (PlannerInfo *root,
 *                           Oid operator,
 *                           List *args,
 *                           int varRelid);
 *
 * root: general information about the query (rtable and RelOptInfo lists
 * are particularly important for the estimator).
 * operator: OID of the specific operator in question.
 * args: argument list from the operator clause.
 * varRelid: if not zero, the relid (rtable index) of the relation to
 * be treated as the variable relation.  May be zero if the args list
 * is known to contain vars of only one relation.
 *
 * This is represented at the SQL level (in pg_proc) as
 *
 *      float8 oprrest (internal, oid, internal, int4);
 *
 * The result is a selectivity, that is, a fraction (0 to 1) of the rows
 * of the relation that are expected to produce a TRUE result for the
 * given operator.
 *
 * The call convention for a join estimator (oprjoin function) is similar
 * except that varRelid is not needed, and instead join information is
 * supplied:
 *
 *      Selectivity oprjoin (PlannerInfo *root,
 *                           Oid operator,
 *                           List *args,
 *                           JoinType jointype,
 *                           SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo);
 *
 *      float8 oprjoin (internal, oid, internal, int2, internal);
 *
 * (Before Postgres 8.4, join estimators had only the first four of these
 * parameters.  That signature is still allowed, but deprecated.)  The
 * relationship between jointype and sjinfo is explained in the comments for
 * clause_selectivity() --- the short version is that jointype is usually
 * best ignored in favor of examining sjinfo.
 *
 * Join selectivity for regular inner and outer joins is defined as the
 * fraction (0 to 1) of the cross product of the relations that is expected
 * to produce a TRUE result for the given operator.  For both semi and anti
 * joins, however, the selectivity is defined as the fraction of the left-hand
 * side relation's rows that are expected to have a match (ie, at least one
 * row with a TRUE result) in the right-hand side.
 *
 * For both oprrest and oprjoin functions, the operator's input collation OID
 * (if any) is passed using the standard fmgr mechanism, so that the estimator
 * function can fetch it with PG_GET_COLLATION().  Note, however, that all
 * statistics in pg_statistic are currently built using the database's default
 * collation.  Thus, in most cases where we are looking at statistics, we
 * should ignore the actual operator collation and use DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID.
 * We expect that the error induced by doing this is usually not large enough
 * to justify complicating matters.
 *----------
 */

#include "postgres.h"

#include <ctype.h>
#include <math.h>

#include "access/gin.h"
#include "access/htup_details.h"
#include "access/sysattr.h"
#include "catalog/index.h"
#include "catalog/pg_collation.h"
#include "catalog/pg_opfamily.h"
#include "catalog/pg_statistic.h"
#include "catalog/pg_type.h"
#include "executor/executor.h"
#include "mb/pg_wchar.h"
#include "nodes/makefuncs.h"
#include "nodes/nodeFuncs.h"
#include "optimizer/clauses.h"
#include "optimizer/cost.h"
#include "optimizer/pathnode.h"
#include "optimizer/paths.h"
#include "optimizer/plancat.h"
#include "optimizer/predtest.h"
#include "optimizer/restrictinfo.h"
#include "optimizer/var.h"
#include "parser/parse_clause.h"
#include "parser/parse_coerce.h"
#include "parser/parsetree.h"
#include "utils/builtins.h"
#include "utils/bytea.h"
#include "utils/date.h"
#include "utils/datum.h"
#include "utils/fmgroids.h"
#include "utils/lsyscache.h"
#include "utils/nabstime.h"
#include "utils/pg_locale.h"
#include "utils/rel.h"
#include "utils/selfuncs.h"
#include "utils/spccache.h"
#include "utils/syscache.h"
#include "utils/timestamp.h"
#include "utils/tqual.h"
#include "utils/typcache.h"


/* Hooks for plugins to get control when we ask for stats */
get_relation_stats_hook_type get_relation_stats_hook = NULL;
get_index_stats_hook_type get_index_stats_hook = NULL;

static double var_eq_const(VariableStatData *vardata, Oid operator,
             Datum constval, bool constisnull,
             bool varonleft);
static double var_eq_non_const(VariableStatData *vardata, Oid operator,
                 Node *other,
                 bool varonleft);
static double ineq_histogram_selectivity(PlannerInfo *root,
                           VariableStatData *vardata,
                           FmgrInfo *opproc, bool isgt,
                           Datum constval, Oid consttype);
static double eqjoinsel_inner(Oid operator,
                VariableStatData *vardata1, VariableStatData *vardata2);
static double eqjoinsel_semi(Oid operator,
               VariableStatData *vardata1, VariableStatData *vardata2,
               RelOptInfo *inner_rel);
static bool convert_to_scalar(Datum value, Oid valuetypid, double *scaledvalue,
                  Datum lobound, Datum hibound, Oid boundstypid,
                  double *scaledlobound, double *scaledhibound);
static double convert_numeric_to_scalar(Datum value, Oid typid);
static void convert_string_to_scalar(char *value,
                         double *scaledvalue,
                         char *lobound,
                         double *scaledlobound,
                         char *hibound,
                         double *scaledhibound);
static void convert_bytea_to_scalar(Datum value,
                        double *scaledvalue,
                        Datum lobound,
                        double *scaledlobound,
                        Datum hibound,
                        double *scaledhibound);
static double convert_one_string_to_scalar(char *value,
                             int rangelo, int rangehi);
static double convert_one_bytea_to_scalar(unsigned char *value, int valuelen,
                            int rangelo, int rangehi);
static char *convert_string_datum(Datum value, Oid typid);
static double convert_timevalue_to_scalar(Datum value, Oid typid);
static void examine_simple_variable(PlannerInfo *root, Var *var,
                        VariableStatData *vardata);
static bool get_variable_range(PlannerInfo *root, VariableStatData *vardata,
                   Oid sortop, Datum *min, Datum *max);
static bool get_actual_variable_range(PlannerInfo *root,
                          VariableStatData *vardata,
                          Oid sortop,
                          Datum *min, Datum *max);
static RelOptInfo *find_join_input_rel(PlannerInfo *root, Relids relids);
static Selectivity prefix_selectivity(PlannerInfo *root,
                   VariableStatData *vardata,
                   Oid vartype, Oid opfamily, Const *prefixcon);
static Selectivity like_selectivity(const char *patt, int pattlen,
                                    bool case_insensitive);
static Selectivity regex_selectivity(const char *patt, int pattlen,
                                     bool case_insensitive,
                                     int fixed_prefix_len);
static Datum string_to_datum(const char *str, Oid datatype);
static Const *string_to_const(const char *str, Oid datatype);
static Const *string_to_bytea_const(const char *str, size_t str_len);
static List *add_predicate_to_quals(IndexOptInfo *index, List *indexQuals);


/*
 *      eqsel           - Selectivity of "=" for any data types.
 *
 * Note: this routine is also used to estimate selectivity for some
 * operators that are not "=" but have comparable selectivity behavior,
 * such as "~=" (geometric approximate-match).  Even for "=", we must
 * keep in mind that the left and right datatypes may differ.
 */
Datum
eqsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);
    int         varRelid = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);
    VariableStatData vardata;
    Node       *other;
    bool        varonleft;
    double      selec;

    /*
     * If expression is not variable = something or something = variable, then
     * punt and return a default estimate.
     */
    if (!get_restriction_variable(root, args, varRelid,
                                  &vardata, &other, &varonleft))
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_EQ_SEL);

    /*
     * We can do a lot better if the something is a constant.  (Note: the
     * Const might result from estimation rather than being a simple constant
     * in the query.)
     */
    if (IsA(other, Const))
        selec = var_eq_const(&vardata, operator,
                             ((Const *) other)->constvalue,
                             ((Const *) other)->constisnull,
                             varonleft);
    else
        selec = var_eq_non_const(&vardata, operator, other,
                                 varonleft);

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((float8) selec);
}

/*
 * var_eq_const --- eqsel for var = const case
 *
 * This is split out so that some other estimation functions can use it.
 */
static double
var_eq_const(VariableStatData *vardata, Oid operator,
             Datum constval, bool constisnull,
             bool varonleft)
{
    double      selec;
    bool        isdefault;

    /*
     * If the constant is NULL, assume operator is strict and return zero, ie,
     * operator will never return TRUE.
     */
    if (constisnull)
        return 0.0;

    /*
     * If we matched the var to a unique index or DISTINCT clause, assume
     * there is exactly one match regardless of anything else.  (This is
     * slightly bogus, since the index or clause's equality operator might be
     * different from ours, but it's much more likely to be right than
     * ignoring the information.)
     */
    if (vardata->isunique && vardata->rel && vardata->rel->tuples >= 1.0)
        return 1.0 / vardata->rel->tuples;

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple))
    {
        Form_pg_statistic stats;
        Datum      *values;
        int         nvalues;
        float4     *numbers;
        int         nnumbers;
        bool        match = false;
        int         i;

        stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata->statsTuple);

        /*
         * Is the constant "=" to any of the column's most common values?
         * (Although the given operator may not really be "=", we will assume
         * that seeing whether it returns TRUE is an appropriate test.  If you
         * don't like this, maybe you shouldn't be using eqsel for your
         * operator...)
         */
        if (get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                             vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                             STATISTIC_KIND_MCV, InvalidOid,
                             NULL,
                             &values, &nvalues,
                             &numbers, &nnumbers))
        {
            FmgrInfo    eqproc;

            fmgr_info(get_opcode(operator), &eqproc);

            for (i = 0; i < nvalues; i++)
            {
                /* be careful to apply operator right way 'round */
                if (varonleft)
                    match = DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&eqproc,
                                                       DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                           values[i],
                                                           constval));
                else
                    match = DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&eqproc,
                                                       DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                           constval,
                                                           values[i]));
                if (match)
                    break;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            /* no most-common-value info available */
            values = NULL;
            numbers = NULL;
            i = nvalues = nnumbers = 0;
        }

        if (match)
        {
            /*
             * Constant is "=" to this common value.  We know selectivity
             * exactly (or as exactly as ANALYZE could calculate it, anyway).
             */
            selec = numbers[i];
        }
        else
        {
            /*
             * Comparison is against a constant that is neither NULL nor any
             * of the common values.  Its selectivity cannot be more than
             * this:
             */
            double      sumcommon = 0.0;
            double      otherdistinct;

            for (i = 0; i < nnumbers; i++)
                sumcommon += numbers[i];
            selec = 1.0 - sumcommon - stats->stanullfrac;
            CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

            /*
             * and in fact it's probably a good deal less. We approximate that
             * all the not-common values share this remaining fraction
             * equally, so we divide by the number of other distinct values.
             */
            otherdistinct = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata, &isdefault) - nnumbers;
            if (otherdistinct > 1)
                selec /= otherdistinct;

            /*
             * Another cross-check: selectivity shouldn't be estimated as more
             * than the least common "most common value".
             */
            if (nnumbers > 0 && selec > numbers[nnumbers - 1])
                selec = numbers[nnumbers - 1];
        }

        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues,
                          numbers, nnumbers);
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * No ANALYZE stats available, so make a guess using estimated number
         * of distinct values and assuming they are equally common. (The guess
         * is unlikely to be very good, but we do know a few special cases.)
         */
        selec = 1.0 / get_variable_numdistinct(vardata, &isdefault);
    }

    /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

    return selec;
}

/*
 * var_eq_non_const --- eqsel for var = something-other-than-const case
 */
static double
var_eq_non_const(VariableStatData *vardata, Oid operator,
                 Node *other,
                 bool varonleft)
{
    double      selec;
    bool        isdefault;

    /*
     * If we matched the var to a unique index or DISTINCT clause, assume
     * there is exactly one match regardless of anything else.  (This is
     * slightly bogus, since the index or clause's equality operator might be
     * different from ours, but it's much more likely to be right than
     * ignoring the information.)
     */
    if (vardata->isunique && vardata->rel && vardata->rel->tuples >= 1.0)
        return 1.0 / vardata->rel->tuples;

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple))
    {
        Form_pg_statistic stats;
        double      ndistinct;
        float4     *numbers;
        int         nnumbers;

        stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata->statsTuple);

        /*
         * Search is for a value that we do not know a priori, but we will
         * assume it is not NULL.  Estimate the selectivity as non-null
         * fraction divided by number of distinct values, so that we get a
         * result averaged over all possible values whether common or
         * uncommon.  (Essentially, we are assuming that the not-yet-known
         * comparison value is equally likely to be any of the possible
         * values, regardless of their frequency in the table.  Is that a good
         * idea?)
         */
        selec = 1.0 - stats->stanullfrac;
        ndistinct = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata, &isdefault);
        if (ndistinct > 1)
            selec /= ndistinct;

        /*
         * Cross-check: selectivity should never be estimated as more than the
         * most common value's.
         */
        if (get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                             vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                             STATISTIC_KIND_MCV, InvalidOid,
                             NULL,
                             NULL, NULL,
                             &numbers, &nnumbers))
        {
            if (nnumbers > 0 && selec > numbers[0])
                selec = numbers[0];
            free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, NULL, 0, numbers, nnumbers);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * No ANALYZE stats available, so make a guess using estimated number
         * of distinct values and assuming they are equally common. (The guess
         * is unlikely to be very good, but we do know a few special cases.)
         */
        selec = 1.0 / get_variable_numdistinct(vardata, &isdefault);
    }

    /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

    return selec;
}

/*
 *      neqsel          - Selectivity of "!=" for any data types.
 *
 * This routine is also used for some operators that are not "!="
 * but have comparable selectivity behavior.  See above comments
 * for eqsel().
 */
Datum
neqsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);
    int         varRelid = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);
    Oid         eqop;
    float8      result;

    /*
     * We want 1 - eqsel() where the equality operator is the one associated
     * with this != operator, that is, its negator.
     */
    eqop = get_negator(operator);
    if (eqop)
    {
        result = DatumGetFloat8(DirectFunctionCall4(eqsel,
                                                    PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                    ObjectIdGetDatum(eqop),
                                                    PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                    Int32GetDatum(varRelid)));
    }
    else
    {
        /* Use default selectivity (should we raise an error instead?) */
        result = DEFAULT_EQ_SEL;
    }
    result = 1.0 - result;
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(result);
}

/*
 *  scalarineqsel       - Selectivity of "<", "<=", ">", ">=" for scalars.
 *
 * This is the guts of both scalarltsel and scalargtsel.  The caller has
 * commuted the clause, if necessary, so that we can treat the variable as
 * being on the left.  The caller must also make sure that the other side
 * of the clause is a non-null Const, and dissect same into a value and
 * datatype.
 *
 * This routine works for any datatype (or pair of datatypes) known to
 * convert_to_scalar().  If it is applied to some other datatype,
 * it will return a default estimate.
 */
static double
scalarineqsel(PlannerInfo *root, Oid operator, bool isgt,
              VariableStatData *vardata, Datum constval, Oid consttype)
{
    Form_pg_statistic stats;
    FmgrInfo    opproc;
    double      mcv_selec,
                hist_selec,
                sumcommon;
    double      selec;

    if (!HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple))
    {
        /* no stats available, so default result */
        return DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL;
    }
    stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata->statsTuple);

    fmgr_info(get_opcode(operator), &opproc);

    /*
     * If we have most-common-values info, add up the fractions of the MCV
     * entries that satisfy MCV OP CONST.  These fractions contribute directly
     * to the result selectivity.  Also add up the total fraction represented
     * by MCV entries.
     */
    mcv_selec = mcv_selectivity(vardata, &opproc, constval, true,
                                &sumcommon);

    /*
     * If there is a histogram, determine which bin the constant falls in, and
     * compute the resulting contribution to selectivity.
     */
    hist_selec = ineq_histogram_selectivity(root, vardata, &opproc, isgt,
                                            constval, consttype);

    /*
     * Now merge the results from the MCV and histogram calculations,
     * realizing that the histogram covers only the non-null values that are
     * not listed in MCV.
     */
    selec = 1.0 - stats->stanullfrac - sumcommon;

    if (hist_selec >= 0.0)
        selec *= hist_selec;
    else
    {
        /*
         * If no histogram but there are values not accounted for by MCV,
         * arbitrarily assume half of them will match.
         */
        selec *= 0.5;
    }

    selec += mcv_selec;

    /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

    return selec;
}

/*
 *  mcv_selectivity         - Examine the MCV list for selectivity estimates
 *
 * Determine the fraction of the variable's MCV population that satisfies
 * the predicate (VAR OP CONST), or (CONST OP VAR) if !varonleft.  Also
 * compute the fraction of the total column population represented by the MCV
 * list.  This code will work for any boolean-returning predicate operator.
 *
 * The function result is the MCV selectivity, and the fraction of the
 * total population is returned into *sumcommonp.  Zeroes are returned
 * if there is no MCV list.
 */
double
mcv_selectivity(VariableStatData *vardata, FmgrInfo *opproc,
                Datum constval, bool varonleft,
                double *sumcommonp)
{
    double      mcv_selec,
                sumcommon;
    Datum      *values;
    int         nvalues;
    float4     *numbers;
    int         nnumbers;
    int         i;

    mcv_selec = 0.0;
    sumcommon = 0.0;

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple) &&
        get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                         vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                         STATISTIC_KIND_MCV, InvalidOid,
                         NULL,
                         &values, &nvalues,
                         &numbers, &nnumbers))
    {
        for (i = 0; i < nvalues; i++)
        {
            if (varonleft ?
                DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(opproc,
                                               DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                               values[i],
                                               constval)) :
                DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(opproc,
                                               DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                               constval,
                                               values[i])))
                mcv_selec += numbers[i];
            sumcommon += numbers[i];
        }
        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues,
                          numbers, nnumbers);
    }

    *sumcommonp = sumcommon;
    return mcv_selec;
}

/*
 *  histogram_selectivity   - Examine the histogram for selectivity estimates
 *
 * Determine the fraction of the variable's histogram entries that satisfy
 * the predicate (VAR OP CONST), or (CONST OP VAR) if !varonleft.
 *
 * This code will work for any boolean-returning predicate operator, whether
 * or not it has anything to do with the histogram sort operator.  We are
 * essentially using the histogram just as a representative sample.  However,
 * small histograms are unlikely to be all that representative, so the caller
 * should be prepared to fall back on some other estimation approach when the
 * histogram is missing or very small.  It may also be prudent to combine this
 * approach with another one when the histogram is small.
 *
 * If the actual histogram size is not at least min_hist_size, we won't bother
 * to do the calculation at all.  Also, if the n_skip parameter is > 0, we
 * ignore the first and last n_skip histogram elements, on the grounds that
 * they are outliers and hence not very representative.  Typical values for
 * these parameters are 10 and 1.
 *
 * The function result is the selectivity, or -1 if there is no histogram
 * or it's smaller than min_hist_size.
 *
 * The output parameter *hist_size receives the actual histogram size,
 * or zero if no histogram.  Callers may use this number to decide how
 * much faith to put in the function result.
 *
 * Note that the result disregards both the most-common-values (if any) and
 * null entries.  The caller is expected to combine this result with
 * statistics for those portions of the column population.  It may also be
 * prudent to clamp the result range, ie, disbelieve exact 0 or 1 outputs.
 */
double
histogram_selectivity(VariableStatData *vardata, FmgrInfo *opproc,
                      Datum constval, bool varonleft,
                      int min_hist_size, int n_skip,
                      int *hist_size)
{
    double      result;
    Datum      *values;
    int         nvalues;

    /* check sanity of parameters */
    Assert(n_skip >= 0);
    Assert(min_hist_size > 2 * n_skip);

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple) &&
        get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                         vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                         STATISTIC_KIND_HISTOGRAM, InvalidOid,
                         NULL,
                         &values, &nvalues,
                         NULL, NULL))
    {
        *hist_size = nvalues;
        if (nvalues >= min_hist_size)
        {
            int         nmatch = 0;
            int         i;

            for (i = n_skip; i < nvalues - n_skip; i++)
            {
                if (varonleft ?
                    DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(opproc,
                                                   DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                   values[i],
                                                   constval)) :
                    DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(opproc,
                                                   DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                   constval,
                                                   values[i])))
                    nmatch++;
            }
            result = ((double) nmatch) / ((double) (nvalues - 2 * n_skip));
        }
        else
            result = -1;
        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues, NULL, 0);
    }
    else
    {
        *hist_size = 0;
        result = -1;
    }

    return result;
}

/*
 *  ineq_histogram_selectivity  - Examine the histogram for scalarineqsel
 *
 * Determine the fraction of the variable's histogram population that
 * satisfies the inequality condition, ie, VAR < CONST or VAR > CONST.
 *
 * Returns -1 if there is no histogram (valid results will always be >= 0).
 *
 * Note that the result disregards both the most-common-values (if any) and
 * null entries.  The caller is expected to combine this result with
 * statistics for those portions of the column population.
 */
static double
ineq_histogram_selectivity(PlannerInfo *root,
                           VariableStatData *vardata,
                           FmgrInfo *opproc, bool isgt,
                           Datum constval, Oid consttype)
{
    double      hist_selec;
    Oid         hist_op;
    Datum      *values;
    int         nvalues;

    hist_selec = -1.0;

    /*
     * Someday, ANALYZE might store more than one histogram per rel/att,
     * corresponding to more than one possible sort ordering defined for the
     * column type.  However, to make that work we will need to figure out
     * which staop to search for --- it's not necessarily the one we have at
     * hand!  (For example, we might have a '<=' operator rather than the '<'
     * operator that will appear in staop.)  For now, assume that whatever
     * appears in pg_statistic is sorted the same way our operator sorts, or
     * the reverse way if isgt is TRUE.
     */
    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple) &&
        get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                         vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                         STATISTIC_KIND_HISTOGRAM, InvalidOid,
                         &hist_op,
                         &values, &nvalues,
                         NULL, NULL))
    {
        if (nvalues > 1)
        {
            /*
             * Use binary search to find proper location, ie, the first slot
             * at which the comparison fails.  (If the given operator isn't
             * actually sort-compatible with the histogram, you'll get garbage
             * results ... but probably not any more garbage-y than you would
             * from the old linear search.)
             *
             * If the binary search accesses the first or last histogram
             * entry, we try to replace that endpoint with the true column min
             * or max as found by get_actual_variable_range().  This
             * ameliorates misestimates when the min or max is moving as a
             * result of changes since the last ANALYZE.  Note that this could
             * result in effectively including MCVs into the histogram that
             * weren't there before, but we don't try to correct for that.
             */
            double      histfrac;
            int         lobound = 0;    /* first possible slot to search */
            int         hibound = nvalues;      /* last+1 slot to search */
            bool        have_end = false;

            /*
             * If there are only two histogram entries, we'll want up-to-date
             * values for both.  (If there are more than two, we need at most
             * one of them to be updated, so we deal with that within the
             * loop.)
             */
            if (nvalues == 2)
                have_end = get_actual_variable_range(root,
                                                     vardata,
                                                     hist_op,
                                                     &values[0],
                                                     &values[1]);

            while (lobound < hibound)
            {
                int         probe = (lobound + hibound) / 2;
                bool        ltcmp;

                /*
                 * If we find ourselves about to compare to the first or last
                 * histogram entry, first try to replace it with the actual
                 * current min or max (unless we already did so above).
                 */
                if (probe == 0 && nvalues > 2)
                    have_end = get_actual_variable_range(root,
                                                         vardata,
                                                         hist_op,
                                                         &values[0],
                                                         NULL);
                else if (probe == nvalues - 1 && nvalues > 2)
                    have_end = get_actual_variable_range(root,
                                                         vardata,
                                                         hist_op,
                                                         NULL,
                                                         &values[probe]);

                ltcmp = DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(opproc,
                                                       DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                       values[probe],
                                                       constval));
                if (isgt)
                    ltcmp = !ltcmp;
                if (ltcmp)
                    lobound = probe + 1;
                else
                    hibound = probe;
            }

            if (lobound <= 0)
            {
                /* Constant is below lower histogram boundary. */
                histfrac = 0.0;
            }
            else if (lobound >= nvalues)
            {
                /* Constant is above upper histogram boundary. */
                histfrac = 1.0;
            }
            else
            {
                int         i = lobound;
                double      val,
                            high,
                            low;
                double      binfrac;

                /*
                 * We have values[i-1] <= constant <= values[i].
                 *
                 * Convert the constant and the two nearest bin boundary
                 * values to a uniform comparison scale, and do a linear
                 * interpolation within this bin.
                 */
                if (convert_to_scalar(constval, consttype, &val,
                                      values[i - 1], values[i],
                                      vardata->vartype,
                                      &low, &high))
                {
                    if (high <= low)
                    {
                        /* cope if bin boundaries appear identical */
                        binfrac = 0.5;
                    }
                    else if (val <= low)
                        binfrac = 0.0;
                    else if (val >= high)
                        binfrac = 1.0;
                    else
                    {
                        binfrac = (val - low) / (high - low);

                        /*
                         * Watch out for the possibility that we got a NaN or
                         * Infinity from the division.  This can happen
                         * despite the previous checks, if for example "low"
                         * is -Infinity.
                         */
                        if (isnan(binfrac) ||
                            binfrac < 0.0 || binfrac > 1.0)
                            binfrac = 0.5;
                    }
                }
                else
                {
                    /*
                     * Ideally we'd produce an error here, on the grounds that
                     * the given operator shouldn't have scalarXXsel
                     * registered as its selectivity func unless we can deal
                     * with its operand types.  But currently, all manner of
                     * stuff is invoking scalarXXsel, so give a default
                     * estimate until that can be fixed.
                     */
                    binfrac = 0.5;
                }

                /*
                 * Now, compute the overall selectivity across the values
                 * represented by the histogram.  We have i-1 full bins and
                 * binfrac partial bin below the constant.
                 */
                histfrac = (double) (i - 1) + binfrac;
                histfrac /= (double) (nvalues - 1);
            }

            /*
             * Now histfrac = fraction of histogram entries below the
             * constant.
             *
             * Account for "<" vs ">"
             */
            hist_selec = isgt ? (1.0 - histfrac) : histfrac;

            /*
             * The histogram boundaries are only approximate to begin with,
             * and may well be out of date anyway.  Therefore, don't believe
             * extremely small or large selectivity estimates --- unless we
             * got actual current endpoint values from the table.
             */
            if (have_end)
                CLAMP_PROBABILITY(hist_selec);
            else
            {
                if (hist_selec < 0.0001)
                    hist_selec = 0.0001;
                else if (hist_selec > 0.9999)
                    hist_selec = 0.9999;
            }
        }

        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues, NULL, 0);
    }

    return hist_selec;
}

/*
 *      scalarltsel     - Selectivity of "<" (also "<=") for scalars.
 */
Datum
scalarltsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);
    int         varRelid = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);
    VariableStatData vardata;
    Node       *other;
    bool        varonleft;
    Datum       constval;
    Oid         consttype;
    bool        isgt;
    double      selec;

    /*
     * If expression is not variable op something or something op variable,
     * then punt and return a default estimate.
     */
    if (!get_restriction_variable(root, args, varRelid,
                                  &vardata, &other, &varonleft))
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);

    /*
     * Can't do anything useful if the something is not a constant, either.
     */
    if (!IsA(other, Const))
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);
    }

    /*
     * If the constant is NULL, assume operator is strict and return zero, ie,
     * operator will never return TRUE.
     */
    if (((Const *) other)->constisnull)
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(0.0);
    }
    constval = ((Const *) other)->constvalue;
    consttype = ((Const *) other)->consttype;

    /*
     * Force the var to be on the left to simplify logic in scalarineqsel.
     */
    if (varonleft)
    {
        /* we have var < other */
        isgt = false;
    }
    else
    {
        /* we have other < var, commute to make var > other */
        operator = get_commutator(operator);
        if (!operator)
        {
            /* Use default selectivity (should we raise an error instead?) */
            ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
            PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);
        }
        isgt = true;
    }

    selec = scalarineqsel(root, operator, isgt, &vardata, constval, consttype);

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((float8) selec);
}

/*
 *      scalargtsel     - Selectivity of ">" (also ">=") for integers.
 */
Datum
scalargtsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);
    int         varRelid = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);
    VariableStatData vardata;
    Node       *other;
    bool        varonleft;
    Datum       constval;
    Oid         consttype;
    bool        isgt;
    double      selec;

    /*
     * If expression is not variable op something or something op variable,
     * then punt and return a default estimate.
     */
    if (!get_restriction_variable(root, args, varRelid,
                                  &vardata, &other, &varonleft))
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);

    /*
     * Can't do anything useful if the something is not a constant, either.
     */
    if (!IsA(other, Const))
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);
    }

    /*
     * If the constant is NULL, assume operator is strict and return zero, ie,
     * operator will never return TRUE.
     */
    if (((Const *) other)->constisnull)
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(0.0);
    }
    constval = ((Const *) other)->constvalue;
    consttype = ((Const *) other)->consttype;

    /*
     * Force the var to be on the left to simplify logic in scalarineqsel.
     */
    if (varonleft)
    {
        /* we have var > other */
        isgt = true;
    }
    else
    {
        /* we have other > var, commute to make var < other */
        operator = get_commutator(operator);
        if (!operator)
        {
            /* Use default selectivity (should we raise an error instead?) */
            ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
            PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);
        }
        isgt = false;
    }

    selec = scalarineqsel(root, operator, isgt, &vardata, constval, consttype);

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((float8) selec);
}

/*
 * patternsel           - Generic code for pattern-match selectivity.
 */
static double
patternsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS, Pattern_Type ptype, bool negate)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);
    int         varRelid = PG_GETARG_INT32(3);
    Oid         collation = PG_GET_COLLATION();
    VariableStatData vardata;
    Node       *other;
    bool        varonleft;
    Datum       constval;
    Oid         consttype;
    Oid         vartype;
    Oid         opfamily;
    Pattern_Prefix_Status pstatus;
    Const      *patt;
    Const      *prefix = NULL;
    Selectivity rest_selec = 0;
    double      result;

    /*
     * If this is for a NOT LIKE or similar operator, get the corresponding
     * positive-match operator and work with that.  Set result to the correct
     * default estimate, too.
     */
    if (negate)
    {
        operator = get_negator(operator);
        if (!OidIsValid(operator))
            elog(ERROR, "patternsel called for operator without a negator");
        result = 1.0 - DEFAULT_MATCH_SEL;
    }
    else
    {
        result = DEFAULT_MATCH_SEL;
    }

    /*
     * If expression is not variable op constant, then punt and return a
     * default estimate.
     */
    if (!get_restriction_variable(root, args, varRelid,
                                  &vardata, &other, &varonleft))
        return result;
    if (!varonleft || !IsA(other, Const))
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        return result;
    }

    /*
     * If the constant is NULL, assume operator is strict and return zero, ie,
     * operator will never return TRUE.  (It's zero even for a negator op.)
     */
    if (((Const *) other)->constisnull)
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        return 0.0;
    }
    constval = ((Const *) other)->constvalue;
    consttype = ((Const *) other)->consttype;

    /*
     * The right-hand const is type text or bytea for all supported operators.
     * We do not expect to see binary-compatible types here, since
     * const-folding should have relabeled the const to exactly match the
     * operator's declared type.
     */
    if (consttype != TEXTOID && consttype != BYTEAOID)
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        return result;
    }

    /*
     * Similarly, the exposed type of the left-hand side should be one of
     * those we know.  (Do not look at vardata.atttype, which might be
     * something binary-compatible but different.)  We can use it to choose
     * the index opfamily from which we must draw the comparison operators.
     *
     * NOTE: It would be more correct to use the PATTERN opfamilies than the
     * simple ones, but at the moment ANALYZE will not generate statistics for
     * the PATTERN operators.  But our results are so approximate anyway that
     * it probably hardly matters.
     */
    vartype = vardata.vartype;

    switch (vartype)
    {
        case TEXTOID:
            opfamily = TEXT_BTREE_FAM_OID;
            break;
        case BPCHAROID:
            opfamily = BPCHAR_BTREE_FAM_OID;
            break;
        case NAMEOID:
            opfamily = NAME_BTREE_FAM_OID;
            break;
        case BYTEAOID:
            opfamily = BYTEA_BTREE_FAM_OID;
            break;
        default:
            ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
            return result;
    }

    /*
     * Pull out any fixed prefix implied by the pattern, and estimate the
     * fractional selectivity of the remainder of the pattern.  Unlike many of
     * the other functions in this file, we use the pattern operator's actual
     * collation for this step.  This is not because we expect the collation
     * to make a big difference in the selectivity estimate (it seldom would),
     * but because we want to be sure we cache compiled regexps under the
     * right cache key, so that they can be re-used at runtime.
     */
    patt = (Const *) other;
    pstatus = pattern_fixed_prefix(patt, ptype, collation,
                                   &prefix, &rest_selec);

    /*
     * If necessary, coerce the prefix constant to the right type.
     */
    if (prefix && prefix->consttype != vartype)
    {
        char       *prefixstr;

        switch (prefix->consttype)
        {
            case TEXTOID:
                prefixstr = TextDatumGetCString(prefix->constvalue);
                break;
            case BYTEAOID:
                prefixstr = DatumGetCString(DirectFunctionCall1(byteaout,
                                                        prefix->constvalue));
                break;
            default:
                elog(ERROR, "unrecognized consttype: %u",
                     prefix->consttype);
                ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
                return result;
        }
        prefix = string_to_const(prefixstr, vartype);
        pfree(prefixstr);
    }

    if (pstatus == Pattern_Prefix_Exact)
    {
        /*
         * Pattern specifies an exact match, so pretend operator is '='
         */
        Oid         eqopr = get_opfamily_member(opfamily, vartype, vartype,
                                                BTEqualStrategyNumber);

        if (eqopr == InvalidOid)
            elog(ERROR, "no = operator for opfamily %u", opfamily);
        result = var_eq_const(&vardata, eqopr, prefix->constvalue,
                              false, true);
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * Not exact-match pattern.  If we have a sufficiently large
         * histogram, estimate selectivity for the histogram part of the
         * population by counting matches in the histogram.  If not, estimate
         * selectivity of the fixed prefix and remainder of pattern
         * separately, then combine the two to get an estimate of the
         * selectivity for the part of the column population represented by
         * the histogram.  (For small histograms, we combine these
         * approaches.)
         *
         * We then add up data for any most-common-values values; these are
         * not in the histogram population, and we can get exact answers for
         * them by applying the pattern operator, so there's no reason to
         * approximate.  (If the MCVs cover a significant part of the total
         * population, this gives us a big leg up in accuracy.)
         */
        Selectivity selec;
        int         hist_size;
        FmgrInfo    opproc;
        double      nullfrac,
                    mcv_selec,
                    sumcommon;

        /* Try to use the histogram entries to get selectivity */
        fmgr_info(get_opcode(operator), &opproc);

        selec = histogram_selectivity(&vardata, &opproc, constval, true,
                                      10, 1, &hist_size);

        /* If not at least 100 entries, use the heuristic method */
        if (hist_size < 100)
        {
            Selectivity heursel;
            Selectivity prefixsel;

            if (pstatus == Pattern_Prefix_Partial)
                prefixsel = prefix_selectivity(root, &vardata, vartype,
                                               opfamily, prefix);
            else
                prefixsel = 1.0;
            heursel = prefixsel * rest_selec;

            if (selec < 0)      /* fewer than 10 histogram entries? */
                selec = heursel;
            else
            {
                /*
                 * For histogram sizes from 10 to 100, we combine the
                 * histogram and heuristic selectivities, putting increasingly
                 * more trust in the histogram for larger sizes.
                 */
                double      hist_weight = hist_size / 100.0;

                selec = selec * hist_weight + heursel * (1.0 - hist_weight);
            }
        }

        /* In any case, don't believe extremely small or large estimates. */
        if (selec < 0.0001)
            selec = 0.0001;
        else if (selec > 0.9999)
            selec = 0.9999;

        /*
         * If we have most-common-values info, add up the fractions of the MCV
         * entries that satisfy MCV OP PATTERN.  These fractions contribute
         * directly to the result selectivity.  Also add up the total fraction
         * represented by MCV entries.
         */
        mcv_selec = mcv_selectivity(&vardata, &opproc, constval, true,
                                    &sumcommon);

        if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple))
            nullfrac = ((Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata.statsTuple))->stanullfrac;
        else
            nullfrac = 0.0;

        /*
         * Now merge the results from the MCV and histogram calculations,
         * realizing that the histogram covers only the non-null values that
         * are not listed in MCV.
         */
        selec *= 1.0 - nullfrac - sumcommon;
        selec += mcv_selec;

        /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);
        result = selec;
    }

    if (prefix)
    {
        pfree(DatumGetPointer(prefix->constvalue));
        pfree(prefix);
    }

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    return negate ? (1.0 - result) : result;
}

/*
 *      regexeqsel      - Selectivity of regular-expression pattern match.
 */
Datum
regexeqsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex, false));
}

/*
 *      icregexeqsel    - Selectivity of case-insensitive regex match.
 */
Datum
icregexeqsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex_IC, false));
}

/*
 *      likesel         - Selectivity of LIKE pattern match.
 */
Datum
likesel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like, false));
}

/*
 *      iclikesel           - Selectivity of ILIKE pattern match.
 */
Datum
iclikesel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like_IC, false));
}

/*
 *      regexnesel      - Selectivity of regular-expression pattern non-match.
 */
Datum
regexnesel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex, true));
}

/*
 *      icregexnesel    - Selectivity of case-insensitive regex non-match.
 */
Datum
icregexnesel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex_IC, true));
}

/*
 *      nlikesel        - Selectivity of LIKE pattern non-match.
 */
Datum
nlikesel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like, true));
}

/*
 *      icnlikesel      - Selectivity of ILIKE pattern non-match.
 */
Datum
icnlikesel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like_IC, true));
}

/*
 *      booltestsel     - Selectivity of BooleanTest Node.
 */
Selectivity
booltestsel(PlannerInfo *root, BoolTestType booltesttype, Node *arg,
            int varRelid, JoinType jointype, SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo)
{
    VariableStatData vardata;
    double      selec;

    examine_variable(root, arg, varRelid, &vardata);

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple))
    {
        Form_pg_statistic stats;
        double      freq_null;
        Datum      *values;
        int         nvalues;
        float4     *numbers;
        int         nnumbers;

        stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata.statsTuple);
        freq_null = stats->stanullfrac;

        if (get_attstatsslot(vardata.statsTuple,
                             vardata.atttype, vardata.atttypmod,
                             STATISTIC_KIND_MCV, InvalidOid,
                             NULL,
                             &values, &nvalues,
                             &numbers, &nnumbers)
            && nnumbers > 0)
        {
            double      freq_true;
            double      freq_false;

            /*
             * Get first MCV frequency and derive frequency for true.
             */
            if (DatumGetBool(values[0]))
                freq_true = numbers[0];
            else
                freq_true = 1.0 - numbers[0] - freq_null;

            /*
             * Next derive frequency for false. Then use these as appropriate
             * to derive frequency for each case.
             */
            freq_false = 1.0 - freq_true - freq_null;

            switch (booltesttype)
            {
                case IS_UNKNOWN:
                    /* select only NULL values */
                    selec = freq_null;
                    break;
                case IS_NOT_UNKNOWN:
                    /* select non-NULL values */
                    selec = 1.0 - freq_null;
                    break;
                case IS_TRUE:
                    /* select only TRUE values */
                    selec = freq_true;
                    break;
                case IS_NOT_TRUE:
                    /* select non-TRUE values */
                    selec = 1.0 - freq_true;
                    break;
                case IS_FALSE:
                    /* select only FALSE values */
                    selec = freq_false;
                    break;
                case IS_NOT_FALSE:
                    /* select non-FALSE values */
                    selec = 1.0 - freq_false;
                    break;
                default:
                    elog(ERROR, "unrecognized booltesttype: %d",
                         (int) booltesttype);
                    selec = 0.0;    /* Keep compiler quiet */
                    break;
            }

            free_attstatsslot(vardata.atttype, values, nvalues,
                              numbers, nnumbers);
        }
        else
        {
            /*
             * No most-common-value info available. Still have null fraction
             * information, so use it for IS [NOT] UNKNOWN. Otherwise adjust
             * for null fraction and assume an even split for boolean tests.
             */
            switch (booltesttype)
            {
                case IS_UNKNOWN:

                    /*
                     * Use freq_null directly.
                     */
                    selec = freq_null;
                    break;
                case IS_NOT_UNKNOWN:

                    /*
                     * Select not unknown (not null) values. Calculate from
                     * freq_null.
                     */
                    selec = 1.0 - freq_null;
                    break;
                case IS_TRUE:
                case IS_NOT_TRUE:
                case IS_FALSE:
                case IS_NOT_FALSE:
                    selec = (1.0 - freq_null) / 2.0;
                    break;
                default:
                    elog(ERROR, "unrecognized booltesttype: %d",
                         (int) booltesttype);
                    selec = 0.0;    /* Keep compiler quiet */
                    break;
            }
        }
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * If we can't get variable statistics for the argument, perhaps
         * clause_selectivity can do something with it.  We ignore the
         * possibility of a NULL value when using clause_selectivity, and just
         * assume the value is either TRUE or FALSE.
         */
        switch (booltesttype)
        {
            case IS_UNKNOWN:
                selec = DEFAULT_UNK_SEL;
                break;
            case IS_NOT_UNKNOWN:
                selec = DEFAULT_NOT_UNK_SEL;
                break;
            case IS_TRUE:
            case IS_NOT_FALSE:
                selec = (double) clause_selectivity(root, arg,
                                                    varRelid,
                                                    jointype, sjinfo);
                break;
            case IS_FALSE:
            case IS_NOT_TRUE:
                selec = 1.0 - (double) clause_selectivity(root, arg,
                                                          varRelid,
                                                          jointype, sjinfo);
                break;
            default:
                elog(ERROR, "unrecognized booltesttype: %d",
                     (int) booltesttype);
                selec = 0.0;    /* Keep compiler quiet */
                break;
        }
    }

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

    return (Selectivity) selec;
}

/*
 *      nulltestsel     - Selectivity of NullTest Node.
 */
Selectivity
nulltestsel(PlannerInfo *root, NullTestType nulltesttype, Node *arg,
            int varRelid, JoinType jointype, SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo)
{
    VariableStatData vardata;
    double      selec;

    examine_variable(root, arg, varRelid, &vardata);

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple))
    {
        Form_pg_statistic stats;
        double      freq_null;

        stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata.statsTuple);
        freq_null = stats->stanullfrac;

        switch (nulltesttype)
        {
            case IS_NULL:

                /*
                 * Use freq_null directly.
                 */
                selec = freq_null;
                break;
            case IS_NOT_NULL:

                /*
                 * Select not unknown (not null) values. Calculate from
                 * freq_null.
                 */
                selec = 1.0 - freq_null;
                break;
            default:
                elog(ERROR, "unrecognized nulltesttype: %d",
                     (int) nulltesttype);
                return (Selectivity) 0; /* keep compiler quiet */
        }
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * No ANALYZE stats available, so make a guess
         */
        switch (nulltesttype)
        {
            case IS_NULL:
                selec = DEFAULT_UNK_SEL;
                break;
            case IS_NOT_NULL:
                selec = DEFAULT_NOT_UNK_SEL;
                break;
            default:
                elog(ERROR, "unrecognized nulltesttype: %d",
                     (int) nulltesttype);
                return (Selectivity) 0; /* keep compiler quiet */
        }
    }

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

    return (Selectivity) selec;
}

/*
 * strip_array_coercion - strip binary-compatible relabeling from an array expr
 *
 * For array values, the parser normally generates ArrayCoerceExpr conversions,
 * but it seems possible that RelabelType might show up.  Also, the planner
 * is not currently tense about collapsing stacked ArrayCoerceExpr nodes,
 * so we need to be ready to deal with more than one level.
 */
static Node *
strip_array_coercion(Node *node)
{
    for (;;)
    {
        if (node && IsA(node, ArrayCoerceExpr) &&
            ((ArrayCoerceExpr *) node)->elemfuncid == InvalidOid)
        {
            node = (Node *) ((ArrayCoerceExpr *) node)->arg;
        }
        else if (node && IsA(node, RelabelType))
        {
            /* We don't really expect this case, but may as well cope */
            node = (Node *) ((RelabelType *) node)->arg;
        }
        else
            break;
    }
    return node;
}

/*
 *      scalararraysel      - Selectivity of ScalarArrayOpExpr Node.
 */
Selectivity
scalararraysel(PlannerInfo *root,
               ScalarArrayOpExpr *clause,
               bool is_join_clause,
               int varRelid,
               JoinType jointype,
               SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo)
{
    Oid         operator = clause->opno;
    bool        useOr = clause->useOr;
    bool        isEquality = false;
    bool        isInequality = false;
    Node       *leftop;
    Node       *rightop;
    Oid         nominal_element_type;
    Oid         nominal_element_collation;
    TypeCacheEntry *typentry;
    RegProcedure oprsel;
    FmgrInfo    oprselproc;
    Selectivity s1;
    Selectivity s1disjoint;

    /* First, deconstruct the expression */
    Assert(list_length(clause->args) == 2);
    leftop = (Node *) linitial(clause->args);
    rightop = (Node *) lsecond(clause->args);

    /* get nominal (after relabeling) element type of rightop */
    nominal_element_type = get_base_element_type(exprType(rightop));
    if (!OidIsValid(nominal_element_type))
        return (Selectivity) 0.5;       /* probably shouldn't happen */
    /* get nominal collation, too, for generating constants */
    nominal_element_collation = exprCollation(rightop);

    /* look through any binary-compatible relabeling of rightop */
    rightop = strip_array_coercion(rightop);

    /*
     * Detect whether the operator is the default equality or inequality
     * operator of the array element type.
     */
    typentry = lookup_type_cache(nominal_element_type, TYPECACHE_EQ_OPR);
    if (OidIsValid(typentry->eq_opr))
    {
        if (operator == typentry->eq_opr)
            isEquality = true;
        else if (get_negator(operator) == typentry->eq_opr)
            isInequality = true;
    }

    /*
     * If it is equality or inequality, we might be able to estimate this as a
     * form of array containment; for instance "const = ANY(column)" can be
     * treated as "ARRAY[const] <@ column".  scalararraysel_containment tries
     * that, and returns the selectivity estimate if successful, or -1 if not.
     */
    if ((isEquality || isInequality) && !is_join_clause)
    {
        s1 = scalararraysel_containment(root, leftop, rightop,
                                        nominal_element_type,
                                        isEquality, useOr, varRelid);
        if (s1 >= 0.0)
            return s1;
    }

    /*
     * Look up the underlying operator's selectivity estimator. Punt if it
     * hasn't got one.
     */
    if (is_join_clause)
        oprsel = get_oprjoin(operator);
    else
        oprsel = get_oprrest(operator);
    if (!oprsel)
        return (Selectivity) 0.5;
    fmgr_info(oprsel, &oprselproc);

    /*
     * In the array-containment check above, we must only believe that an
     * operator is equality or inequality if it is the default btree equality
     * operator (or its negator) for the element type, since those are the
     * operators that array containment will use.  But in what follows, we can
     * be a little laxer, and also believe that any operators using eqsel() or
     * neqsel() as selectivity estimator act like equality or inequality.
     */
    if (oprsel == F_EQSEL || oprsel == F_EQJOINSEL)
        isEquality = true;
    else if (oprsel == F_NEQSEL || oprsel == F_NEQJOINSEL)
        isInequality = true;

    /*
     * We consider three cases:
     *
     * 1. rightop is an Array constant: deconstruct the array, apply the
     * operator's selectivity function for each array element, and merge the
     * results in the same way that clausesel.c does for AND/OR combinations.
     *
     * 2. rightop is an ARRAY[] construct: apply the operator's selectivity
     * function for each element of the ARRAY[] construct, and merge.
     *
     * 3. otherwise, make a guess ...
     */
    if (rightop && IsA(rightop, Const))
    {
        Datum       arraydatum = ((Const *) rightop)->constvalue;
        bool        arrayisnull = ((Const *) rightop)->constisnull;
        ArrayType  *arrayval;
        int16       elmlen;
        bool        elmbyval;
        char        elmalign;
        int         num_elems;
        Datum      *elem_values;
        bool       *elem_nulls;
        int         i;

        if (arrayisnull)        /* qual can't succeed if null array */
            return (Selectivity) 0.0;
        arrayval = DatumGetArrayTypeP(arraydatum);
        get_typlenbyvalalign(ARR_ELEMTYPE(arrayval),
                             &elmlen, &elmbyval, &elmalign);
        deconstruct_array(arrayval,
                          ARR_ELEMTYPE(arrayval),
                          elmlen, elmbyval, elmalign,
                          &elem_values, &elem_nulls, &num_elems);

        /*
         * For generic operators, we assume the probability of success is
         * independent for each array element.  But for "= ANY" or "<> ALL",
         * if the array elements are distinct (which'd typically be the case)
         * then the probabilities are disjoint, and we should just sum them.
         *
         * If we were being really tense we would try to confirm that the
         * elements are all distinct, but that would be expensive and it
         * doesn't seem to be worth the cycles; it would amount to penalizing
         * well-written queries in favor of poorly-written ones.  However, we
         * do protect ourselves a little bit by checking whether the
         * disjointness assumption leads to an impossible (out of range)
         * probability; if so, we fall back to the normal calculation.
         */
        s1 = s1disjoint = (useOr ? 0.0 : 1.0);

        for (i = 0; i < num_elems; i++)
        {
            List       *args;
            Selectivity s2;

            args = list_make2(leftop,
                              makeConst(nominal_element_type,
                                        -1,
                                        nominal_element_collation,
                                        elmlen,
                                        elem_values[i],
                                        elem_nulls[i],
                                        elmbyval));
            if (is_join_clause)
                s2 = DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall5Coll(&oprselproc,
                                                      clause->inputcollid,
                                                      PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                      ObjectIdGetDatum(operator),
                                                      PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                      Int16GetDatum(jointype),
                                                      PointerGetDatum(sjinfo)));
            else
                s2 = DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall4Coll(&oprselproc,
                                                      clause->inputcollid,
                                                      PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                      ObjectIdGetDatum(operator),
                                                      PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                      Int32GetDatum(varRelid)));

            if (useOr)
            {
                s1 = s1 + s2 - s1 * s2;
                if (isEquality)
                    s1disjoint += s2;
            }
            else
            {
                s1 = s1 * s2;
                if (isInequality)
                    s1disjoint += s2 - 1.0;
            }
        }

        /* accept disjoint-probability estimate if in range */
        if ((useOr ? isEquality : isInequality) &&
            s1disjoint >= 0.0 && s1disjoint <= 1.0)
            s1 = s1disjoint;
    }
    else if (rightop && IsA(rightop, ArrayExpr) &&
             !((ArrayExpr *) rightop)->multidims)
    {
        ArrayExpr  *arrayexpr = (ArrayExpr *) rightop;
        int16       elmlen;
        bool        elmbyval;
        ListCell   *l;

        get_typlenbyval(arrayexpr->element_typeid,
                        &elmlen, &elmbyval);

        /*
         * We use the assumption of disjoint probabilities here too, although
         * the odds of equal array elements are rather higher if the elements
         * are not all constants (which they won't be, else constant folding
         * would have reduced the ArrayExpr to a Const).  In this path it's
         * critical to have the sanity check on the s1disjoint estimate.
         */
        s1 = s1disjoint = (useOr ? 0.0 : 1.0);

        foreach(l, arrayexpr->elements)
        {
            Node       *elem = (Node *) lfirst(l);
            List       *args;
            Selectivity s2;

            /*
             * Theoretically, if elem isn't of nominal_element_type we should
             * insert a RelabelType, but it seems unlikely that any operator
             * estimation function would really care ...
             */
            args = list_make2(leftop, elem);
            if (is_join_clause)
                s2 = DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall5Coll(&oprselproc,
                                                      clause->inputcollid,
                                                      PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                      ObjectIdGetDatum(operator),
                                                      PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                      Int16GetDatum(jointype),
                                                      PointerGetDatum(sjinfo)));
            else
                s2 = DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall4Coll(&oprselproc,
                                                      clause->inputcollid,
                                                      PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                      ObjectIdGetDatum(operator),
                                                      PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                      Int32GetDatum(varRelid)));

            if (useOr)
            {
                s1 = s1 + s2 - s1 * s2;
                if (isEquality)
                    s1disjoint += s2;
            }
            else
            {
                s1 = s1 * s2;
                if (isInequality)
                    s1disjoint += s2 - 1.0;
            }
        }

        /* accept disjoint-probability estimate if in range */
        if ((useOr ? isEquality : isInequality) &&
            s1disjoint >= 0.0 && s1disjoint <= 1.0)
            s1 = s1disjoint;
    }
    else
    {
        CaseTestExpr *dummyexpr;
        List       *args;
        Selectivity s2;
        int         i;

        /*
         * We need a dummy rightop to pass to the operator selectivity
         * routine.  It can be pretty much anything that doesn't look like a
         * constant; CaseTestExpr is a convenient choice.
         */
        dummyexpr = makeNode(CaseTestExpr);
        dummyexpr->typeId = nominal_element_type;
        dummyexpr->typeMod = -1;
        dummyexpr->collation = clause->inputcollid;
        args = list_make2(leftop, dummyexpr);
        if (is_join_clause)
            s2 = DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall5Coll(&oprselproc,
                                                  clause->inputcollid,
                                                  PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                  ObjectIdGetDatum(operator),
                                                  PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                  Int16GetDatum(jointype),
                                                  PointerGetDatum(sjinfo)));
        else
            s2 = DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall4Coll(&oprselproc,
                                                  clause->inputcollid,
                                                  PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                  ObjectIdGetDatum(operator),
                                                  PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                  Int32GetDatum(varRelid)));
        s1 = useOr ? 0.0 : 1.0;

        /*
         * Arbitrarily assume 10 elements in the eventual array value (see
         * also estimate_array_length).  We don't risk an assumption of
         * disjoint probabilities here.
         */
        for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
        {
            if (useOr)
                s1 = s1 + s2 - s1 * s2;
            else
                s1 = s1 * s2;
        }
    }

    /* result should be in range, but make sure... */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(s1);

    return s1;
}

/*
 * Estimate number of elements in the array yielded by an expression.
 *
 * It's important that this agree with scalararraysel.
 */
int
estimate_array_length(Node *arrayexpr)
{
    /* look through any binary-compatible relabeling of arrayexpr */
    arrayexpr = strip_array_coercion(arrayexpr);

    if (arrayexpr && IsA(arrayexpr, Const))
    {
        Datum       arraydatum = ((Const *) arrayexpr)->constvalue;
        bool        arrayisnull = ((Const *) arrayexpr)->constisnull;
        ArrayType  *arrayval;

        if (arrayisnull)
            return 0;
        arrayval = DatumGetArrayTypeP(arraydatum);
        return ArrayGetNItems(ARR_NDIM(arrayval), ARR_DIMS(arrayval));
    }
    else if (arrayexpr && IsA(arrayexpr, ArrayExpr) &&
             !((ArrayExpr *) arrayexpr)->multidims)
    {
        return list_length(((ArrayExpr *) arrayexpr)->elements);
    }
    else
    {
        /* default guess --- see also scalararraysel */
        return 10;
    }
}

/*
 *      rowcomparesel       - Selectivity of RowCompareExpr Node.
 *
 * We estimate RowCompare selectivity by considering just the first (high
 * order) columns, which makes it equivalent to an ordinary OpExpr.  While
 * this estimate could be refined by considering additional columns, it
 * seems unlikely that we could do a lot better without multi-column
 * statistics.
 */
Selectivity
rowcomparesel(PlannerInfo *root,
              RowCompareExpr *clause,
              int varRelid, JoinType jointype, SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo)
{
    Selectivity s1;
    Oid         opno = linitial_oid(clause->opnos);
    Oid         inputcollid = linitial_oid(clause->inputcollids);
    List       *opargs;
    bool        is_join_clause;

    /* Build equivalent arg list for single operator */
    opargs = list_make2(linitial(clause->largs), linitial(clause->rargs));

    /*
     * Decide if it's a join clause.  This should match clausesel.c's
     * treat_as_join_clause(), except that we intentionally consider only the
     * leading columns and not the rest of the clause.
     */
    if (varRelid != 0)
    {
        /*
         * Caller is forcing restriction mode (eg, because we are examining an
         * inner indexscan qual).
         */
        is_join_clause = false;
    }
    else if (sjinfo == NULL)
    {
        /*
         * It must be a restriction clause, since it's being evaluated at a
         * scan node.
         */
        is_join_clause = false;
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * Otherwise, it's a join if there's more than one relation used.
         */
        is_join_clause = (NumRelids((Node *) opargs) > 1);
    }

    if (is_join_clause)
    {
        /* Estimate selectivity for a join clause. */
        s1 = join_selectivity(root, opno,
                              opargs,
                              inputcollid,
                              jointype,
                              sjinfo);
    }
    else
    {
        /* Estimate selectivity for a restriction clause. */
        s1 = restriction_selectivity(root, opno,
                                     opargs,
                                     inputcollid,
                                     varRelid);
    }

    return s1;
}

/*
 *      eqjoinsel       - Join selectivity of "="
 */
Datum
eqjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);

#ifdef NOT_USED
    JoinType    jointype = (JoinType) PG_GETARG_INT16(3);
#endif
    SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo = (SpecialJoinInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    double      selec;
    VariableStatData vardata1;
    VariableStatData vardata2;
    bool        join_is_reversed;
    RelOptInfo *inner_rel;

    get_join_variables(root, args, sjinfo,
                       &vardata1, &vardata2, &join_is_reversed);

    switch (sjinfo->jointype)
    {
        case JOIN_INNER:
        case JOIN_LEFT:
        case JOIN_FULL:
            selec = eqjoinsel_inner(operator, &vardata1, &vardata2);
            break;
        case JOIN_SEMI:
        case JOIN_ANTI:

            /*
             * Look up the join's inner relation.  min_righthand is sufficient
             * information because neither SEMI nor ANTI joins permit any
             * reassociation into or out of their RHS, so the righthand will
             * always be exactly that set of rels.
             */
            inner_rel = find_join_input_rel(root, sjinfo->min_righthand);

            if (!join_is_reversed)
                selec = eqjoinsel_semi(operator, &vardata1, &vardata2,
                                       inner_rel);
            else
                selec = eqjoinsel_semi(get_commutator(operator),
                                       &vardata2, &vardata1,
                                       inner_rel);
            break;
        default:
            /* other values not expected here */
            elog(ERROR, "unrecognized join type: %d",
                 (int) sjinfo->jointype);
            selec = 0;          /* keep compiler quiet */
            break;
    }

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata1);
    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata2);

    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(selec);

    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((float8) selec);
}

/*
 * eqjoinsel_inner --- eqjoinsel for normal inner join
 *
 * We also use this for LEFT/FULL outer joins; it's not presently clear
 * that it's worth trying to distinguish them here.
 */
static double
eqjoinsel_inner(Oid operator,
                VariableStatData *vardata1, VariableStatData *vardata2)
{
    double      selec;
    double      nd1;
    double      nd2;
    bool        isdefault1;
    bool        isdefault2;
    Form_pg_statistic stats1 = NULL;
    Form_pg_statistic stats2 = NULL;
    bool        have_mcvs1 = false;
    Datum      *values1 = NULL;
    int         nvalues1 = 0;
    float4     *numbers1 = NULL;
    int         nnumbers1 = 0;
    bool        have_mcvs2 = false;
    Datum      *values2 = NULL;
    int         nvalues2 = 0;
    float4     *numbers2 = NULL;
    int         nnumbers2 = 0;

    nd1 = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata1, &isdefault1);
    nd2 = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata2, &isdefault2);

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata1->statsTuple))
    {
        stats1 = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata1->statsTuple);
        have_mcvs1 = get_attstatsslot(vardata1->statsTuple,
                                      vardata1->atttype,
                                      vardata1->atttypmod,
                                      STATISTIC_KIND_MCV,
                                      InvalidOid,
                                      NULL,
                                      &values1, &nvalues1,
                                      &numbers1, &nnumbers1);
    }

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata2->statsTuple))
    {
        stats2 = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata2->statsTuple);
        have_mcvs2 = get_attstatsslot(vardata2->statsTuple,
                                      vardata2->atttype,
                                      vardata2->atttypmod,
                                      STATISTIC_KIND_MCV,
                                      InvalidOid,
                                      NULL,
                                      &values2, &nvalues2,
                                      &numbers2, &nnumbers2);
    }

    if (have_mcvs1 && have_mcvs2)
    {
        /*
         * We have most-common-value lists for both relations.  Run through
         * the lists to see which MCVs actually join to each other with the
         * given operator.  This allows us to determine the exact join
         * selectivity for the portion of the relations represented by the MCV
         * lists.  We still have to estimate for the remaining population, but
         * in a skewed distribution this gives us a big leg up in accuracy.
         * For motivation see the analysis in Y. Ioannidis and S.
         * Christodoulakis, "On the propagation of errors in the size of join
         * results", Technical Report 1018, Computer Science Dept., University
         * of Wisconsin, Madison, March 1991 (available from ftp.cs.wisc.edu).
         */
        FmgrInfo    eqproc;
        bool       *hasmatch1;
        bool       *hasmatch2;
        double      nullfrac1 = stats1->stanullfrac;
        double      nullfrac2 = stats2->stanullfrac;
        double      matchprodfreq,
                    matchfreq1,
                    matchfreq2,
                    unmatchfreq1,
                    unmatchfreq2,
                    otherfreq1,
                    otherfreq2,
                    totalsel1,
                    totalsel2;
        int         i,
                    nmatches;

        fmgr_info(get_opcode(operator), &eqproc);
        hasmatch1 = (bool *) palloc0(nvalues1 * sizeof(bool));
        hasmatch2 = (bool *) palloc0(nvalues2 * sizeof(bool));

        /*
         * Note we assume that each MCV will match at most one member of the
         * other MCV list.  If the operator isn't really equality, there could
         * be multiple matches --- but we don't look for them, both for speed
         * and because the math wouldn't add up...
         */
        matchprodfreq = 0.0;
        nmatches = 0;
        for (i = 0; i < nvalues1; i++)
        {
            int         j;

            for (j = 0; j < nvalues2; j++)
            {
                if (hasmatch2[j])
                    continue;
                if (DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&eqproc,
                                                   DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                   values1[i],
                                                   values2[j])))
                {
                    hasmatch1[i] = hasmatch2[j] = true;
                    matchprodfreq += numbers1[i] * numbers2[j];
                    nmatches++;
                    break;
                }
            }
        }
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(matchprodfreq);
        /* Sum up frequencies of matched and unmatched MCVs */
        matchfreq1 = unmatchfreq1 = 0.0;
        for (i = 0; i < nvalues1; i++)
        {
            if (hasmatch1[i])
                matchfreq1 += numbers1[i];
            else
                unmatchfreq1 += numbers1[i];
        }
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(matchfreq1);
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(unmatchfreq1);
        matchfreq2 = unmatchfreq2 = 0.0;
        for (i = 0; i < nvalues2; i++)
        {
            if (hasmatch2[i])
                matchfreq2 += numbers2[i];
            else
                unmatchfreq2 += numbers2[i];
        }
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(matchfreq2);
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(unmatchfreq2);
        pfree(hasmatch1);
        pfree(hasmatch2);

        /*
         * Compute total frequency of non-null values that are not in the MCV
         * lists.
         */
        otherfreq1 = 1.0 - nullfrac1 - matchfreq1 - unmatchfreq1;
        otherfreq2 = 1.0 - nullfrac2 - matchfreq2 - unmatchfreq2;
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(otherfreq1);
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(otherfreq2);

        /*
         * We can estimate the total selectivity from the point of view of
         * relation 1 as: the known selectivity for matched MCVs, plus
         * unmatched MCVs that are assumed to match against random members of
         * relation 2's non-MCV population, plus non-MCV values that are
         * assumed to match against random members of relation 2's unmatched
         * MCVs plus non-MCV values.
         */
        totalsel1 = matchprodfreq;
        if (nd2 > nvalues2)
            totalsel1 += unmatchfreq1 * otherfreq2 / (nd2 - nvalues2);
        if (nd2 > nmatches)
            totalsel1 += otherfreq1 * (otherfreq2 + unmatchfreq2) /
                (nd2 - nmatches);
        /* Same estimate from the point of view of relation 2. */
        totalsel2 = matchprodfreq;
        if (nd1 > nvalues1)
            totalsel2 += unmatchfreq2 * otherfreq1 / (nd1 - nvalues1);
        if (nd1 > nmatches)
            totalsel2 += otherfreq2 * (otherfreq1 + unmatchfreq1) /
                (nd1 - nmatches);

        /*
         * Use the smaller of the two estimates.  This can be justified in
         * essentially the same terms as given below for the no-stats case: to
         * a first approximation, we are estimating from the point of view of
         * the relation with smaller nd.
         */
        selec = (totalsel1 < totalsel2) ? totalsel1 : totalsel2;
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * We do not have MCV lists for both sides.  Estimate the join
         * selectivity as MIN(1/nd1,1/nd2)*(1-nullfrac1)*(1-nullfrac2). This
         * is plausible if we assume that the join operator is strict and the
         * non-null values are about equally distributed: a given non-null
         * tuple of rel1 will join to either zero or N2*(1-nullfrac2)/nd2 rows
         * of rel2, so total join rows are at most
         * N1*(1-nullfrac1)*N2*(1-nullfrac2)/nd2 giving a join selectivity of
         * not more than (1-nullfrac1)*(1-nullfrac2)/nd2. By the same logic it
         * is not more than (1-nullfrac1)*(1-nullfrac2)/nd1, so the expression
         * with MIN() is an upper bound.  Using the MIN() means we estimate
         * from the point of view of the relation with smaller nd (since the
         * larger nd is determining the MIN).  It is reasonable to assume that
         * most tuples in this rel will have join partners, so the bound is
         * probably reasonably tight and should be taken as-is.
         *
         * XXX Can we be smarter if we have an MCV list for just one side? It
         * seems that if we assume equal distribution for the other side, we
         * end up with the same answer anyway.
         */
        double      nullfrac1 = stats1 ? stats1->stanullfrac : 0.0;
        double      nullfrac2 = stats2 ? stats2->stanullfrac : 0.0;

        selec = (1.0 - nullfrac1) * (1.0 - nullfrac2);
        if (nd1 > nd2)
            selec /= nd1;
        else
            selec /= nd2;
    }

    if (have_mcvs1)
        free_attstatsslot(vardata1->atttype, values1, nvalues1,
                          numbers1, nnumbers1);
    if (have_mcvs2)
        free_attstatsslot(vardata2->atttype, values2, nvalues2,
                          numbers2, nnumbers2);

    return selec;
}

/*
 * eqjoinsel_semi --- eqjoinsel for semi join
 *
 * (Also used for anti join, which we are supposed to estimate the same way.)
 * Caller has ensured that vardata1 is the LHS variable.
 */
static double
eqjoinsel_semi(Oid operator,
               VariableStatData *vardata1, VariableStatData *vardata2,
               RelOptInfo *inner_rel)
{
    double      selec;
    double      nd1;
    double      nd2;
    bool        isdefault1;
    bool        isdefault2;
    Form_pg_statistic stats1 = NULL;
    bool        have_mcvs1 = false;
    Datum      *values1 = NULL;
    int         nvalues1 = 0;
    float4     *numbers1 = NULL;
    int         nnumbers1 = 0;
    bool        have_mcvs2 = false;
    Datum      *values2 = NULL;
    int         nvalues2 = 0;
    float4     *numbers2 = NULL;
    int         nnumbers2 = 0;

    nd1 = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata1, &isdefault1);
    nd2 = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata2, &isdefault2);

    /*
     * We clamp nd2 to be not more than what we estimate the inner relation's
     * size to be.  This is intuitively somewhat reasonable since obviously
     * there can't be more than that many distinct values coming from the
     * inner rel.  The reason for the asymmetry (ie, that we don't clamp nd1
     * likewise) is that this is the only pathway by which restriction clauses
     * applied to the inner rel will affect the join result size estimate,
     * since set_joinrel_size_estimates will multiply SEMI/ANTI selectivity by
     * only the outer rel's size.  If we clamped nd1 we'd be double-counting
     * the selectivity of outer-rel restrictions.
     *
     * We can apply this clamping both with respect to the base relation from
     * which the join variable comes (if there is just one), and to the
     * immediate inner input relation of the current join.
     */
    if (vardata2->rel)
        nd2 = Min(nd2, vardata2->rel->rows);
    nd2 = Min(nd2, inner_rel->rows);

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata1->statsTuple))
    {
        stats1 = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata1->statsTuple);
        have_mcvs1 = get_attstatsslot(vardata1->statsTuple,
                                      vardata1->atttype,
                                      vardata1->atttypmod,
                                      STATISTIC_KIND_MCV,
                                      InvalidOid,
                                      NULL,
                                      &values1, &nvalues1,
                                      &numbers1, &nnumbers1);
    }

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata2->statsTuple))
    {
        have_mcvs2 = get_attstatsslot(vardata2->statsTuple,
                                      vardata2->atttype,
                                      vardata2->atttypmod,
                                      STATISTIC_KIND_MCV,
                                      InvalidOid,
                                      NULL,
                                      &values2, &nvalues2,
                                      &numbers2, &nnumbers2);
    }

    if (have_mcvs1 && have_mcvs2 && OidIsValid(operator))
    {
        /*
         * We have most-common-value lists for both relations.  Run through
         * the lists to see which MCVs actually join to each other with the
         * given operator.  This allows us to determine the exact join
         * selectivity for the portion of the relations represented by the MCV
         * lists.  We still have to estimate for the remaining population, but
         * in a skewed distribution this gives us a big leg up in accuracy.
         */
        FmgrInfo    eqproc;
        bool       *hasmatch1;
        bool       *hasmatch2;
        double      nullfrac1 = stats1->stanullfrac;
        double      matchfreq1,
                    uncertainfrac,
                    uncertain;
        int         i,
                    nmatches,
                    clamped_nvalues2;

        /*
         * The clamping above could have resulted in nd2 being less than
         * nvalues2; in which case, we assume that precisely the nd2 most
         * common values in the relation will appear in the join input, and so
         * compare to only the first nd2 members of the MCV list.  Of course
         * this is frequently wrong, but it's the best bet we can make.
         */
        clamped_nvalues2 = Min(nvalues2, nd2);

        fmgr_info(get_opcode(operator), &eqproc);
        hasmatch1 = (bool *) palloc0(nvalues1 * sizeof(bool));
        hasmatch2 = (bool *) palloc0(clamped_nvalues2 * sizeof(bool));

        /*
         * Note we assume that each MCV will match at most one member of the
         * other MCV list.  If the operator isn't really equality, there could
         * be multiple matches --- but we don't look for them, both for speed
         * and because the math wouldn't add up...
         */
        nmatches = 0;
        for (i = 0; i < nvalues1; i++)
        {
            int         j;

            for (j = 0; j < clamped_nvalues2; j++)
            {
                if (hasmatch2[j])
                    continue;
                if (DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&eqproc,
                                                   DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                                   values1[i],
                                                   values2[j])))
                {
                    hasmatch1[i] = hasmatch2[j] = true;
                    nmatches++;
                    break;
                }
            }
        }
        /* Sum up frequencies of matched MCVs */
        matchfreq1 = 0.0;
        for (i = 0; i < nvalues1; i++)
        {
            if (hasmatch1[i])
                matchfreq1 += numbers1[i];
        }
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(matchfreq1);
        pfree(hasmatch1);
        pfree(hasmatch2);

        /*
         * Now we need to estimate the fraction of relation 1 that has at
         * least one join partner.  We know for certain that the matched MCVs
         * do, so that gives us a lower bound, but we're really in the dark
         * about everything else.  Our crude approach is: if nd1 <= nd2 then
         * assume all non-null rel1 rows have join partners, else assume for
         * the uncertain rows that a fraction nd2/nd1 have join partners. We
         * can discount the known-matched MCVs from the distinct-values counts
         * before doing the division.
         *
         * Crude as the above is, it's completely useless if we don't have
         * reliable ndistinct values for both sides.  Hence, if either nd1 or
         * nd2 is default, punt and assume half of the uncertain rows have
         * join partners.
         */
        if (!isdefault1 && !isdefault2)
        {
            nd1 -= nmatches;
            nd2 -= nmatches;
            if (nd1 <= nd2 || nd2 < 0)
                uncertainfrac = 1.0;
            else
                uncertainfrac = nd2 / nd1;
        }
        else
            uncertainfrac = 0.5;
        uncertain = 1.0 - matchfreq1 - nullfrac1;
        CLAMP_PROBABILITY(uncertain);
        selec = matchfreq1 + uncertainfrac * uncertain;
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * Without MCV lists for both sides, we can only use the heuristic
         * about nd1 vs nd2.
         */
        double      nullfrac1 = stats1 ? stats1->stanullfrac : 0.0;

        if (!isdefault1 && !isdefault2)
        {
            if (nd1 <= nd2 || nd2 < 0)
                selec = 1.0 - nullfrac1;
            else
                selec = (nd2 / nd1) * (1.0 - nullfrac1);
        }
        else
            selec = 0.5 * (1.0 - nullfrac1);
    }

    if (have_mcvs1)
        free_attstatsslot(vardata1->atttype, values1, nvalues1,
                          numbers1, nnumbers1);
    if (have_mcvs2)
        free_attstatsslot(vardata2->atttype, values2, nvalues2,
                          numbers2, nnumbers2);

    return selec;
}

/*
 *      neqjoinsel      - Join selectivity of "!="
 */
Datum
neqjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    Oid         operator = PG_GETARG_OID(1);
    List       *args = (List *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(2);
    JoinType    jointype = (JoinType) PG_GETARG_INT16(3);
    SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo = (SpecialJoinInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    Oid         eqop;
    float8      result;

    /*
     * We want 1 - eqjoinsel() where the equality operator is the one
     * associated with this != operator, that is, its negator.
     */
    eqop = get_negator(operator);
    if (eqop)
    {
        result = DatumGetFloat8(DirectFunctionCall5(eqjoinsel,
                                                    PointerGetDatum(root),
                                                    ObjectIdGetDatum(eqop),
                                                    PointerGetDatum(args),
                                                    Int16GetDatum(jointype),
                                                    PointerGetDatum(sjinfo)));
    }
    else
    {
        /* Use default selectivity (should we raise an error instead?) */
        result = DEFAULT_EQ_SEL;
    }
    result = 1.0 - result;
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(result);
}

/*
 *      scalarltjoinsel - Join selectivity of "<" and "<=" for scalars
 */
Datum
scalarltjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);
}

/*
 *      scalargtjoinsel - Join selectivity of ">" and ">=" for scalars
 */
Datum
scalargtjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL);
}

/*
 * patternjoinsel       - Generic code for pattern-match join selectivity.
 */
static double
patternjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS, Pattern_Type ptype, bool negate)
{
    /* For the moment we just punt. */
    return negate ? (1.0 - DEFAULT_MATCH_SEL) : DEFAULT_MATCH_SEL;
}

/*
 *      regexeqjoinsel  - Join selectivity of regular-expression pattern match.
 */
Datum
regexeqjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex, false));
}

/*
 *      icregexeqjoinsel    - Join selectivity of case-insensitive regex match.
 */
Datum
icregexeqjoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex_IC, false));
}

/*
 *      likejoinsel         - Join selectivity of LIKE pattern match.
 */
Datum
likejoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like, false));
}

/*
 *      iclikejoinsel           - Join selectivity of ILIKE pattern match.
 */
Datum
iclikejoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like_IC, false));
}

/*
 *      regexnejoinsel  - Join selectivity of regex non-match.
 */
Datum
regexnejoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex, true));
}

/*
 *      icregexnejoinsel    - Join selectivity of case-insensitive regex non-match.
 */
Datum
icregexnejoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Regex_IC, true));
}

/*
 *      nlikejoinsel        - Join selectivity of LIKE pattern non-match.
 */
Datum
nlikejoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like, true));
}

/*
 *      icnlikejoinsel      - Join selectivity of ILIKE pattern non-match.
 */
Datum
icnlikejoinsel(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(patternjoinsel(fcinfo, Pattern_Type_Like_IC, true));
}

/*
 * mergejoinscansel         - Scan selectivity of merge join.
 *
 * A merge join will stop as soon as it exhausts either input stream.
 * Therefore, if we can estimate the ranges of both input variables,
 * we can estimate how much of the input will actually be read.  This
 * can have a considerable impact on the cost when using indexscans.
 *
 * Also, we can estimate how much of each input has to be read before the
 * first join pair is found, which will affect the join's startup time.
 *
 * clause should be a clause already known to be mergejoinable.  opfamily,
 * strategy, and nulls_first specify the sort ordering being used.
 *
 * The outputs are:
 *      *leftstart is set to the fraction of the left-hand variable expected
 *       to be scanned before the first join pair is found (0 to 1).
 *      *leftend is set to the fraction of the left-hand variable expected
 *       to be scanned before the join terminates (0 to 1).
 *      *rightstart, *rightend similarly for the right-hand variable.
 */
void
mergejoinscansel(PlannerInfo *root, Node *clause,
                 Oid opfamily, int strategy, bool nulls_first,
                 Selectivity *leftstart, Selectivity *leftend,
                 Selectivity *rightstart, Selectivity *rightend)
{
    Node       *left,
               *right;
    VariableStatData leftvar,
                rightvar;
    int         op_strategy;
    Oid         op_lefttype;
    Oid         op_righttype;
    Oid         opno,
                lsortop,
                rsortop,
                lstatop,
                rstatop,
                ltop,
                leop,
                revltop,
                revleop;
    bool        isgt;
    Datum       leftmin,
                leftmax,
                rightmin,
                rightmax;
    double      selec;

    /* Set default results if we can't figure anything out. */
    /* XXX should default "start" fraction be a bit more than 0? */
    *leftstart = *rightstart = 0.0;
    *leftend = *rightend = 1.0;

    /* Deconstruct the merge clause */
    if (!is_opclause(clause))
        return;                 /* shouldn't happen */
    opno = ((OpExpr *) clause)->opno;
    left = get_leftop((Expr *) clause);
    right = get_rightop((Expr *) clause);
    if (!right)
        return;                 /* shouldn't happen */

    /* Look for stats for the inputs */
    examine_variable(root, left, 0, &leftvar);
    examine_variable(root, right, 0, &rightvar);

    /* Extract the operator's declared left/right datatypes */
    get_op_opfamily_properties(opno, opfamily, false,
                               &op_strategy,
                               &op_lefttype,
                               &op_righttype);
    Assert(op_strategy == BTEqualStrategyNumber);

    /*
     * Look up the various operators we need.  If we don't find them all, it
     * probably means the opfamily is broken, but we just fail silently.
     *
     * Note: we expect that pg_statistic histograms will be sorted by the '<'
     * operator, regardless of which sort direction we are considering.
     */
    switch (strategy)
    {
        case BTLessStrategyNumber:
            isgt = false;
            if (op_lefttype == op_righttype)
            {
                /* easy case */
                ltop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTLessStrategyNumber);
                leop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTLessEqualStrategyNumber);
                lsortop = ltop;
                rsortop = ltop;
                lstatop = lsortop;
                rstatop = rsortop;
                revltop = ltop;
                revleop = leop;
            }
            else
            {
                ltop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTLessStrategyNumber);
                leop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTLessEqualStrategyNumber);
                lsortop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_lefttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTLessStrategyNumber);
                rsortop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_righttype,
                                              BTLessStrategyNumber);
                lstatop = lsortop;
                rstatop = rsortop;
                revltop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTLessStrategyNumber);
                revleop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTLessEqualStrategyNumber);
            }
            break;
        case BTGreaterStrategyNumber:
            /* descending-order case */
            isgt = true;
            if (op_lefttype == op_righttype)
            {
                /* easy case */
                ltop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTGreaterStrategyNumber);
                leop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTGreaterEqualStrategyNumber);
                lsortop = ltop;
                rsortop = ltop;
                lstatop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_lefttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTLessStrategyNumber);
                rstatop = lstatop;
                revltop = ltop;
                revleop = leop;
            }
            else
            {
                ltop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTGreaterStrategyNumber);
                leop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                           op_lefttype, op_righttype,
                                           BTGreaterEqualStrategyNumber);
                lsortop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_lefttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTGreaterStrategyNumber);
                rsortop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_righttype,
                                              BTGreaterStrategyNumber);
                lstatop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_lefttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTLessStrategyNumber);
                rstatop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_righttype,
                                              BTLessStrategyNumber);
                revltop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTGreaterStrategyNumber);
                revleop = get_opfamily_member(opfamily,
                                              op_righttype, op_lefttype,
                                              BTGreaterEqualStrategyNumber);
            }
            break;
        default:
            goto fail;          /* shouldn't get here */
    }

    if (!OidIsValid(lsortop) ||
        !OidIsValid(rsortop) ||
        !OidIsValid(lstatop) ||
        !OidIsValid(rstatop) ||
        !OidIsValid(ltop) ||
        !OidIsValid(leop) ||
        !OidIsValid(revltop) ||
        !OidIsValid(revleop))
        goto fail;              /* insufficient info in catalogs */

    /* Try to get ranges of both inputs */
    if (!isgt)
    {
        if (!get_variable_range(root, &leftvar, lstatop,
                                &leftmin, &leftmax))
            goto fail;          /* no range available from stats */
        if (!get_variable_range(root, &rightvar, rstatop,
                                &rightmin, &rightmax))
            goto fail;          /* no range available from stats */
    }
    else
    {
        /* need to swap the max and min */
        if (!get_variable_range(root, &leftvar, lstatop,
                                &leftmax, &leftmin))
            goto fail;          /* no range available from stats */
        if (!get_variable_range(root, &rightvar, rstatop,
                                &rightmax, &rightmin))
            goto fail;          /* no range available from stats */
    }

    /*
     * Now, the fraction of the left variable that will be scanned is the
     * fraction that's <= the right-side maximum value.  But only believe
     * non-default estimates, else stick with our 1.0.
     */
    selec = scalarineqsel(root, leop, isgt, &leftvar,
                          rightmax, op_righttype);
    if (selec != DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL)
        *leftend = selec;

    /* And similarly for the right variable. */
    selec = scalarineqsel(root, revleop, isgt, &rightvar,
                          leftmax, op_lefttype);
    if (selec != DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL)
        *rightend = selec;

    /*
     * Only one of the two "end" fractions can really be less than 1.0;
     * believe the smaller estimate and reset the other one to exactly 1.0. If
     * we get exactly equal estimates (as can easily happen with self-joins),
     * believe neither.
     */
    if (*leftend > *rightend)
        *leftend = 1.0;
    else if (*leftend < *rightend)
        *rightend = 1.0;
    else
        *leftend = *rightend = 1.0;

    /*
     * Also, the fraction of the left variable that will be scanned before the
     * first join pair is found is the fraction that's < the right-side
     * minimum value.  But only believe non-default estimates, else stick with
     * our own default.
     */
    selec = scalarineqsel(root, ltop, isgt, &leftvar,
                          rightmin, op_righttype);
    if (selec != DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL)
        *leftstart = selec;

    /* And similarly for the right variable. */
    selec = scalarineqsel(root, revltop, isgt, &rightvar,
                          leftmin, op_lefttype);
    if (selec != DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL)
        *rightstart = selec;

    /*
     * Only one of the two "start" fractions can really be more than zero;
     * believe the larger estimate and reset the other one to exactly 0.0. If
     * we get exactly equal estimates (as can easily happen with self-joins),
     * believe neither.
     */
    if (*leftstart < *rightstart)
        *leftstart = 0.0;
    else if (*leftstart > *rightstart)
        *rightstart = 0.0;
    else
        *leftstart = *rightstart = 0.0;

    /*
     * If the sort order is nulls-first, we're going to have to skip over any
     * nulls too.  These would not have been counted by scalarineqsel, and we
     * can safely add in this fraction regardless of whether we believe
     * scalarineqsel's results or not.  But be sure to clamp the sum to 1.0!
     */
    if (nulls_first)
    {
        Form_pg_statistic stats;

        if (HeapTupleIsValid(leftvar.statsTuple))
        {
            stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(leftvar.statsTuple);
            *leftstart += stats->stanullfrac;
            CLAMP_PROBABILITY(*leftstart);
            *leftend += stats->stanullfrac;
            CLAMP_PROBABILITY(*leftend);
        }
        if (HeapTupleIsValid(rightvar.statsTuple))
        {
            stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(rightvar.statsTuple);
            *rightstart += stats->stanullfrac;
            CLAMP_PROBABILITY(*rightstart);
            *rightend += stats->stanullfrac;
            CLAMP_PROBABILITY(*rightend);
        }
    }

    /* Disbelieve start >= end, just in case that can happen */
    if (*leftstart >= *leftend)
    {
        *leftstart = 0.0;
        *leftend = 1.0;
    }
    if (*rightstart >= *rightend)
    {
        *rightstart = 0.0;
        *rightend = 1.0;
    }

fail:
    ReleaseVariableStats(leftvar);
    ReleaseVariableStats(rightvar);
}


/*
 * Helper routine for estimate_num_groups: add an item to a list of
 * GroupVarInfos, but only if it's not known equal to any of the existing
 * entries.
 */
typedef struct
{
    Node       *var;            /* might be an expression, not just a Var */
    RelOptInfo *rel;            /* relation it belongs to */
    double      ndistinct;      /* # distinct values */
} GroupVarInfo;

static List *
add_unique_group_var(PlannerInfo *root, List *varinfos,
                     Node *var, VariableStatData *vardata)
{
    GroupVarInfo *varinfo;
    double      ndistinct;
    bool        isdefault;
    ListCell   *lc;

    ndistinct = get_variable_numdistinct(vardata, &isdefault);

    /* cannot use foreach here because of possible list_delete */
    lc = list_head(varinfos);
    while (lc)
    {
        varinfo = (GroupVarInfo *) lfirst(lc);

        /* must advance lc before list_delete possibly pfree's it */
        lc = lnext(lc);

        /* Drop exact duplicates */
        if (equal(var, varinfo->var))
            return varinfos;

        /*
         * Drop known-equal vars, but only if they belong to different
         * relations (see comments for estimate_num_groups)
         */
        if (vardata->rel != varinfo->rel &&
            exprs_known_equal(root, var, varinfo->var))
        {
            if (varinfo->ndistinct <= ndistinct)
            {
                /* Keep older item, forget new one */
                return varinfos;
            }
            else
            {
                /* Delete the older item */
                varinfos = list_delete_ptr(varinfos, varinfo);
            }
        }
    }

    varinfo = (GroupVarInfo *) palloc(sizeof(GroupVarInfo));

    varinfo->var = var;
    varinfo->rel = vardata->rel;
    varinfo->ndistinct = ndistinct;
    varinfos = lappend(varinfos, varinfo);
    return varinfos;
}

/*
 * estimate_num_groups      - Estimate number of groups in a grouped query
 *
 * Given a query having a GROUP BY clause, estimate how many groups there
 * will be --- ie, the number of distinct combinations of the GROUP BY
 * expressions.
 *
 * This routine is also used to estimate the number of rows emitted by
 * a DISTINCT filtering step; that is an isomorphic problem.  (Note:
 * actually, we only use it for DISTINCT when there's no grouping or
 * aggregation ahead of the DISTINCT.)
 *
 * Inputs:
 *  root - the query
 *  groupExprs - list of expressions being grouped by
 *  input_rows - number of rows estimated to arrive at the group/unique
 *      filter step
 *
 * Given the lack of any cross-correlation statistics in the system, it's
 * impossible to do anything really trustworthy with GROUP BY conditions
 * involving multiple Vars.  We should however avoid assuming the worst
 * case (all possible cross-product terms actually appear as groups) since
 * very often the grouped-by Vars are highly correlated.  Our current approach
 * is as follows:
 *  1.  Expressions yielding boolean are assumed to contribute two groups,
 *      independently of their content, and are ignored in the subsequent
 *      steps.  This is mainly because tests like "col IS NULL" break the
 *      heuristic used in step 2 especially badly.
 *  2.  Reduce the given expressions to a list of unique Vars used.  For
 *      example, GROUP BY a, a + b is treated the same as GROUP BY a, b.
 *      It is clearly correct not to count the same Var more than once.
 *      It is also reasonable to treat f(x) the same as x: f() cannot
 *      increase the number of distinct values (unless it is volatile,
 *      which we consider unlikely for grouping), but it probably won't
 *      reduce the number of distinct values much either.
 *      As a special case, if a GROUP BY expression can be matched to an
 *      expressional index for which we have statistics, then we treat the
 *      whole expression as though it were just a Var.
 *  3.  If the list contains Vars of different relations that are known equal
 *      due to equivalence classes, then drop all but one of the Vars from each
 *      known-equal set, keeping the one with smallest estimated # of values
 *      (since the extra values of the others can't appear in joined rows).
 *      Note the reason we only consider Vars of different relations is that
 *      if we considered ones of the same rel, we'd be double-counting the
 *      restriction selectivity of the equality in the next step.
 *  4.  For Vars within a single source rel, we multiply together the numbers
 *      of values, clamp to the number of rows in the rel (divided by 10 if
 *      more than one Var), and then multiply by the selectivity of the
 *      restriction clauses for that rel.  When there's more than one Var,
 *      the initial product is probably too high (it's the worst case) but
 *      clamping to a fraction of the rel's rows seems to be a helpful
 *      heuristic for not letting the estimate get out of hand.  (The factor
 *      of 10 is derived from pre-Postgres-7.4 practice.)  Multiplying
 *      by the restriction selectivity is effectively assuming that the
 *      restriction clauses are independent of the grouping, which is a crummy
 *      assumption, but it's hard to do better.
 *  5.  If there are Vars from multiple rels, we repeat step 4 for each such
 *      rel, and multiply the results together.
 * Note that rels not containing grouped Vars are ignored completely, as are
 * join clauses.  Such rels cannot increase the number of groups, and we
 * assume such clauses do not reduce the number either (somewhat bogus,
 * but we don't have the info to do better).
 */
double
estimate_num_groups(PlannerInfo *root, List *groupExprs, double input_rows)
{
    List       *varinfos = NIL;
    double      numdistinct;
    ListCell   *l;

    /*
     * If no grouping columns, there's exactly one group.  (This can't happen
     * for normal cases with GROUP BY or DISTINCT, but it is possible for
     * corner cases with set operations.)
     */
    if (groupExprs == NIL)
        return 1.0;

    /*
     * Count groups derived from boolean grouping expressions.  For other
     * expressions, find the unique Vars used, treating an expression as a Var
     * if we can find stats for it.  For each one, record the statistical
     * estimate of number of distinct values (total in its table, without
     * regard for filtering).
     */
    numdistinct = 1.0;

    foreach(l, groupExprs)
    {
        Node       *groupexpr = (Node *) lfirst(l);
        VariableStatData vardata;
        List       *varshere;
        ListCell   *l2;

        /* Short-circuit for expressions returning boolean */
        if (exprType(groupexpr) == BOOLOID)
        {
            numdistinct *= 2.0;
            continue;
        }

        /*
         * If examine_variable is able to deduce anything about the GROUP BY
         * expression, treat it as a single variable even if it's really more
         * complicated.
         */
        examine_variable(root, groupexpr, 0, &vardata);
        if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple) || vardata.isunique)
        {
            varinfos = add_unique_group_var(root, varinfos,
                                            groupexpr, &vardata);
            ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
            continue;
        }
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

        /*
         * Else pull out the component Vars.  Handle PlaceHolderVars by
         * recursing into their arguments (effectively assuming that the
         * PlaceHolderVar doesn't change the number of groups, which boils
         * down to ignoring the possible addition of nulls to the result set).
         */
        varshere = pull_var_clause(groupexpr,
                                   PVC_RECURSE_AGGREGATES,
                                   PVC_RECURSE_PLACEHOLDERS);

        /*
         * If we find any variable-free GROUP BY item, then either it is a
         * constant (and we can ignore it) or it contains a volatile function;
         * in the latter case we punt and assume that each input row will
         * yield a distinct group.
         */
        if (varshere == NIL)
        {
            if (contain_volatile_functions(groupexpr))
                return input_rows;
            continue;
        }

        /*
         * Else add variables to varinfos list
         */
        foreach(l2, varshere)
        {
            Node       *var = (Node *) lfirst(l2);

            examine_variable(root, var, 0, &vardata);
            varinfos = add_unique_group_var(root, varinfos, var, &vardata);
            ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        }
    }

    /*
     * If now no Vars, we must have an all-constant or all-boolean GROUP BY
     * list.
     */
    if (varinfos == NIL)
    {
        /* Guard against out-of-range answers */
        if (numdistinct > input_rows)
            numdistinct = input_rows;
        return numdistinct;
    }

    /*
     * Group Vars by relation and estimate total numdistinct.
     *
     * For each iteration of the outer loop, we process the frontmost Var in
     * varinfos, plus all other Vars in the same relation.  We remove these
     * Vars from the newvarinfos list for the next iteration. This is the
     * easiest way to group Vars of same rel together.
     */
    do
    {
        GroupVarInfo *varinfo1 = (GroupVarInfo *) linitial(varinfos);
        RelOptInfo *rel = varinfo1->rel;
        double      reldistinct = varinfo1->ndistinct;
        double      relmaxndistinct = reldistinct;
        int         relvarcount = 1;
        List       *newvarinfos = NIL;

        /*
         * Get the product of numdistinct estimates of the Vars for this rel.
         * Also, construct new varinfos list of remaining Vars.
         */
        for_each_cell(l, lnext(list_head(varinfos)))
        {
            GroupVarInfo *varinfo2 = (GroupVarInfo *) lfirst(l);

            if (varinfo2->rel == varinfo1->rel)
            {
                reldistinct *= varinfo2->ndistinct;
                if (relmaxndistinct < varinfo2->ndistinct)
                    relmaxndistinct = varinfo2->ndistinct;
                relvarcount++;
            }
            else
            {
                /* not time to process varinfo2 yet */
                newvarinfos = lcons(varinfo2, newvarinfos);
            }
        }

        /*
         * Sanity check --- don't divide by zero if empty relation.
         */
        Assert(rel->reloptkind == RELOPT_BASEREL);
        if (rel->tuples > 0)
        {
            /*
             * Clamp to size of rel, or size of rel / 10 if multiple Vars. The
             * fudge factor is because the Vars are probably correlated but we
             * don't know by how much.  We should never clamp to less than the
             * largest ndistinct value for any of the Vars, though, since
             * there will surely be at least that many groups.
             */
            double      clamp = rel->tuples;

            if (relvarcount > 1)
            {
                clamp *= 0.1;
                if (clamp < relmaxndistinct)
                {
                    clamp = relmaxndistinct;
                    /* for sanity in case some ndistinct is too large: */
                    if (clamp > rel->tuples)
                        clamp = rel->tuples;
                }
            }
            if (reldistinct > clamp)
                reldistinct = clamp;

            /*
             * Multiply by restriction selectivity.
             */
            reldistinct *= rel->rows / rel->tuples;

            /*
             * Update estimate of total distinct groups.
             */
            numdistinct *= reldistinct;
        }

        varinfos = newvarinfos;
    } while (varinfos != NIL);

    numdistinct = ceil(numdistinct);

    /* Guard against out-of-range answers */
    if (numdistinct > input_rows)
        numdistinct = input_rows;
    if (numdistinct < 1.0)
        numdistinct = 1.0;

    return numdistinct;
}

/*
 * Estimate hash bucketsize fraction (ie, number of entries in a bucket
 * divided by total tuples in relation) if the specified expression is used
 * as a hash key.
 *
 * XXX This is really pretty bogus since we're effectively assuming that the
 * distribution of hash keys will be the same after applying restriction
 * clauses as it was in the underlying relation.  However, we are not nearly
 * smart enough to figure out how the restrict clauses might change the
 * distribution, so this will have to do for now.
 *
 * We are passed the number of buckets the executor will use for the given
 * input relation.  If the data were perfectly distributed, with the same
 * number of tuples going into each available bucket, then the bucketsize
 * fraction would be 1/nbuckets.  But this happy state of affairs will occur
 * only if (a) there are at least nbuckets distinct data values, and (b)
 * we have a not-too-skewed data distribution.  Otherwise the buckets will
 * be nonuniformly occupied.  If the other relation in the join has a key
 * distribution similar to this one's, then the most-loaded buckets are
 * exactly those that will be probed most often.  Therefore, the "average"
 * bucket size for costing purposes should really be taken as something close
 * to the "worst case" bucket size.  We try to estimate this by adjusting the
 * fraction if there are too few distinct data values, and then scaling up
 * by the ratio of the most common value's frequency to the average frequency.
 *
 * If no statistics are available, use a default estimate of 0.1.  This will
 * discourage use of a hash rather strongly if the inner relation is large,
 * which is what we want.  We do not want to hash unless we know that the
 * inner rel is well-dispersed (or the alternatives seem much worse).
 */
Selectivity
estimate_hash_bucketsize(PlannerInfo *root, Node *hashkey, double nbuckets)
{
    VariableStatData vardata;
    double      estfract,
                ndistinct,
                stanullfrac,
                mcvfreq,
                avgfreq;
    bool        isdefault;
    float4     *numbers;
    int         nnumbers;

    examine_variable(root, hashkey, 0, &vardata);

    /* Get number of distinct values */
    ndistinct = get_variable_numdistinct(&vardata, &isdefault);

    /* If ndistinct isn't real, punt and return 0.1, per comments above */
    if (isdefault)
    {
        ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);
        return (Selectivity) 0.1;
    }

    /* Get fraction that are null */
    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple))
    {
        Form_pg_statistic stats;

        stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata.statsTuple);
        stanullfrac = stats->stanullfrac;
    }
    else
        stanullfrac = 0.0;

    /* Compute avg freq of all distinct data values in raw relation */
    avgfreq = (1.0 - stanullfrac) / ndistinct;

    /*
     * Adjust ndistinct to account for restriction clauses.  Observe we are
     * assuming that the data distribution is affected uniformly by the
     * restriction clauses!
     *
     * XXX Possibly better way, but much more expensive: multiply by
     * selectivity of rel's restriction clauses that mention the target Var.
     */
    if (vardata.rel)
        ndistinct *= vardata.rel->rows / vardata.rel->tuples;

    /*
     * Initial estimate of bucketsize fraction is 1/nbuckets as long as the
     * number of buckets is less than the expected number of distinct values;
     * otherwise it is 1/ndistinct.
     */
    if (ndistinct > nbuckets)
        estfract = 1.0 / nbuckets;
    else
        estfract = 1.0 / ndistinct;

    /*
     * Look up the frequency of the most common value, if available.
     */
    mcvfreq = 0.0;

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple))
    {
        if (get_attstatsslot(vardata.statsTuple,
                             vardata.atttype, vardata.atttypmod,
                             STATISTIC_KIND_MCV, InvalidOid,
                             NULL,
                             NULL, NULL,
                             &numbers, &nnumbers))
        {
            /*
             * The first MCV stat is for the most common value.
             */
            if (nnumbers > 0)
                mcvfreq = numbers[0];
            free_attstatsslot(vardata.atttype, NULL, 0,
                              numbers, nnumbers);
        }
    }

    /*
     * Adjust estimated bucketsize upward to account for skewed distribution.
     */
    if (avgfreq > 0.0 && mcvfreq > avgfreq)
        estfract *= mcvfreq / avgfreq;

    /*
     * Clamp bucketsize to sane range (the above adjustment could easily
     * produce an out-of-range result).  We set the lower bound a little above
     * zero, since zero isn't a very sane result.
     */
    if (estfract < 1.0e-6)
        estfract = 1.0e-6;
    else if (estfract > 1.0)
        estfract = 1.0;

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    return (Selectivity) estfract;
}


/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * Support routines
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */

/*
 * convert_to_scalar
 *    Convert non-NULL values of the indicated types to the comparison
 *    scale needed by scalarineqsel().
 *    Returns "true" if successful.
 *
 * XXX this routine is a hack: ideally we should look up the conversion
 * subroutines in pg_type.
 *
 * All numeric datatypes are simply converted to their equivalent
 * "double" values.  (NUMERIC values that are outside the range of "double"
 * are clamped to +/- HUGE_VAL.)
 *
 * String datatypes are converted by convert_string_to_scalar(),
 * which is explained below.  The reason why this routine deals with
 * three values at a time, not just one, is that we need it for strings.
 *
 * The bytea datatype is just enough different from strings that it has
 * to be treated separately.
 *
 * The several datatypes representing absolute times are all converted
 * to Timestamp, which is actually a double, and then we just use that
 * double value.  Note this will give correct results even for the "special"
 * values of Timestamp, since those are chosen to compare correctly;
 * see timestamp_cmp.
 *
 * The several datatypes representing relative times (intervals) are all
 * converted to measurements expressed in seconds.
 */
static bool
convert_to_scalar(Datum value, Oid valuetypid, double *scaledvalue,
                  Datum lobound, Datum hibound, Oid boundstypid,
                  double *scaledlobound, double *scaledhibound)
{
    /*
     * Both the valuetypid and the boundstypid should exactly match the
     * declared input type(s) of the operator we are invoked for, so we just
     * error out if either is not recognized.
     *
     * XXX The histogram we are interpolating between points of could belong
     * to a column that's only binary-compatible with the declared type. In
     * essence we are assuming that the semantics of binary-compatible types
     * are enough alike that we can use a histogram generated with one type's
     * operators to estimate selectivity for the other's.  This is outright
     * wrong in some cases --- in particular signed versus unsigned
     * interpretation could trip us up.  But it's useful enough in the
     * majority of cases that we do it anyway.  Should think about more
     * rigorous ways to do it.
     */
    switch (valuetypid)
    {
            /*
             * Built-in numeric types
             */
        case BOOLOID:
        case INT2OID:
        case INT4OID:
        case INT8OID:
        case FLOAT4OID:
        case FLOAT8OID:
        case NUMERICOID:
        case OIDOID:
        case REGPROCOID:
        case REGPROCEDUREOID:
        case REGOPEROID:
        case REGOPERATOROID:
        case REGCLASSOID:
        case REGTYPEOID:
        case REGCONFIGOID:
        case REGDICTIONARYOID:
            *scaledvalue = convert_numeric_to_scalar(value, valuetypid);
            *scaledlobound = convert_numeric_to_scalar(lobound, boundstypid);
            *scaledhibound = convert_numeric_to_scalar(hibound, boundstypid);
            return true;

            /*
             * Built-in string types
             */
        case CHAROID:
        case BPCHAROID:
        case VARCHAROID:
        case TEXTOID:
        case NAMEOID:
            {
                char       *valstr = convert_string_datum(value, valuetypid);
                char       *lostr = convert_string_datum(lobound, boundstypid);
                char       *histr = convert_string_datum(hibound, boundstypid);

                convert_string_to_scalar(valstr, scaledvalue,
                                         lostr, scaledlobound,
                                         histr, scaledhibound);
                pfree(valstr);
                pfree(lostr);
                pfree(histr);
                return true;
            }

            /*
             * Built-in bytea type
             */
        case BYTEAOID:
            {
                convert_bytea_to_scalar(value, scaledvalue,
                                        lobound, scaledlobound,
                                        hibound, scaledhibound);
                return true;
            }

            /*
             * Built-in time types
             */
        case TIMESTAMPOID:
        case TIMESTAMPTZOID:
        case ABSTIMEOID:
        case DATEOID:
        case INTERVALOID:
        case RELTIMEOID:
        case TINTERVALOID:
        case TIMEOID:
        case TIMETZOID:
            *scaledvalue = convert_timevalue_to_scalar(value, valuetypid);
            *scaledlobound = convert_timevalue_to_scalar(lobound, boundstypid);
            *scaledhibound = convert_timevalue_to_scalar(hibound, boundstypid);
            return true;

            /*
             * Built-in network types
             */
        case INETOID:
        case CIDROID:
        case MACADDROID:
            *scaledvalue = convert_network_to_scalar(value, valuetypid);
            *scaledlobound = convert_network_to_scalar(lobound, boundstypid);
            *scaledhibound = convert_network_to_scalar(hibound, boundstypid);
            return true;
    }
    /* Don't know how to convert */
    *scaledvalue = *scaledlobound = *scaledhibound = 0;
    return false;
}

/*
 * Do convert_to_scalar()'s work for any numeric data type.
 */
static double
convert_numeric_to_scalar(Datum value, Oid typid)
{
    switch (typid)
    {
        case BOOLOID:
            return (double) DatumGetBool(value);
        case INT2OID:
            return (double) DatumGetInt16(value);
        case INT4OID:
            return (double) DatumGetInt32(value);
        case INT8OID:
            return (double) DatumGetInt64(value);
        case FLOAT4OID:
            return (double) DatumGetFloat4(value);
        case FLOAT8OID:
            return (double) DatumGetFloat8(value);
        case NUMERICOID:
            /* Note: out-of-range values will be clamped to +-HUGE_VAL */
            return (double)
                DatumGetFloat8(DirectFunctionCall1(numeric_float8_no_overflow,
                                                   value));
        case OIDOID:
        case REGPROCOID:
        case REGPROCEDUREOID:
        case REGOPEROID:
        case REGOPERATOROID:
        case REGCLASSOID:
        case REGTYPEOID:
        case REGCONFIGOID:
        case REGDICTIONARYOID:
            /* we can treat OIDs as integers... */
            return (double) DatumGetObjectId(value);
    }

    /*
     * Can't get here unless someone tries to use scalarltsel/scalargtsel on
     * an operator with one numeric and one non-numeric operand.
     */
    elog(ERROR, "unsupported type: %u", typid);
    return 0;
}

/*
 * Do convert_to_scalar()'s work for any character-string data type.
 *
 * String datatypes are converted to a scale that ranges from 0 to 1,
 * where we visualize the bytes of the string as fractional digits.
 *
 * We do not want the base to be 256, however, since that tends to
 * generate inflated selectivity estimates; few databases will have
 * occurrences of all 256 possible byte values at each position.
 * Instead, use the smallest and largest byte values seen in the bounds
 * as the estimated range for each byte, after some fudging to deal with
 * the fact that we probably aren't going to see the full range that way.
 *
 * An additional refinement is that we discard any common prefix of the
 * three strings before computing the scaled values.  This allows us to
 * "zoom in" when we encounter a narrow data range.  An example is a phone
 * number database where all the values begin with the same area code.
 * (Actually, the bounds will be adjacent histogram-bin-boundary values,
 * so this is more likely to happen than you might think.)
 */
static void
convert_string_to_scalar(char *value,
                         double *scaledvalue,
                         char *lobound,
                         double *scaledlobound,
                         char *hibound,
                         double *scaledhibound)
{
    int         rangelo,
                rangehi;
    char       *sptr;

    rangelo = rangehi = (unsigned char) hibound[0];
    for (sptr = lobound; *sptr; sptr++)
    {
        if (rangelo > (unsigned char) *sptr)
            rangelo = (unsigned char) *sptr;
        if (rangehi < (unsigned char) *sptr)
            rangehi = (unsigned char) *sptr;
    }
    for (sptr = hibound; *sptr; sptr++)
    {
        if (rangelo > (unsigned char) *sptr)
            rangelo = (unsigned char) *sptr;
        if (rangehi < (unsigned char) *sptr)
            rangehi = (unsigned char) *sptr;
    }
    /* If range includes any upper-case ASCII chars, make it include all */
    if (rangelo <= 'Z' && rangehi >= 'A')
    {
        if (rangelo > 'A')
            rangelo = 'A';
        if (rangehi < 'Z')
            rangehi = 'Z';
    }
    /* Ditto lower-case */
    if (rangelo <= 'z' && rangehi >= 'a')
    {
        if (rangelo > 'a')
            rangelo = 'a';
        if (rangehi < 'z')
            rangehi = 'z';
    }
    /* Ditto digits */
    if (rangelo <= '9' && rangehi >= '0')
    {
        if (rangelo > '0')
            rangelo = '0';
        if (rangehi < '9')
            rangehi = '9';
    }

    /*
     * If range includes less than 10 chars, assume we have not got enough
     * data, and make it include regular ASCII set.
     */
    if (rangehi - rangelo < 9)
    {
        rangelo = ' ';
        rangehi = 127;
    }

    /*
     * Now strip any common prefix of the three strings.
     */
    while (*lobound)
    {
        if (*lobound != *hibound || *lobound != *value)
            break;
        lobound++, hibound++, value++;
    }

    /*
     * Now we can do the conversions.
     */
    *scaledvalue = convert_one_string_to_scalar(value, rangelo, rangehi);
    *scaledlobound = convert_one_string_to_scalar(lobound, rangelo, rangehi);
    *scaledhibound = convert_one_string_to_scalar(hibound, rangelo, rangehi);
}

static double
convert_one_string_to_scalar(char *value, int rangelo, int rangehi)
{
    int         slen = strlen(value);
    double      num,
                denom,
                base;

    if (slen <= 0)
        return 0.0;             /* empty string has scalar value 0 */

    /*
     * Since base is at least 10, need not consider more than about 20 chars
     */
    if (slen > 20)
        slen = 20;

    /* Convert initial characters to fraction */
    base = rangehi - rangelo + 1;
    num = 0.0;
    denom = base;
    while (slen-- > 0)
    {
        int         ch = (unsigned char) *value++;

        if (ch < rangelo)
            ch = rangelo - 1;
        else if (ch > rangehi)
            ch = rangehi + 1;
        num += ((double) (ch - rangelo)) / denom;
        denom *= base;
    }

    return num;
}

/*
 * Convert a string-type Datum into a palloc'd, null-terminated string.
 *
 * When using a non-C locale, we must pass the string through strxfrm()
 * before continuing, so as to generate correct locale-specific results.
 */
static char *
convert_string_datum(Datum value, Oid typid)
{
    char       *val;

    switch (typid)
    {
        case CHAROID:
            val = (char *) palloc(2);
            val[0] = DatumGetChar(value);
            val[1] = '\0';
            break;
        case BPCHAROID:
        case VARCHAROID:
        case TEXTOID:
            val = TextDatumGetCString(value);
            break;
        case NAMEOID:
            {
                NameData   *nm = (NameData *) DatumGetPointer(value);

                val = pstrdup(NameStr(*nm));
                break;
            }
        default:

            /*
             * Can't get here unless someone tries to use scalarltsel on an
             * operator with one string and one non-string operand.
             */
            elog(ERROR, "unsupported type: %u", typid);
            return NULL;
    }

    if (!lc_collate_is_c(DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID))
    {
        char       *xfrmstr;
        size_t      xfrmlen;
        size_t xfrmlen2 PG_USED_FOR_ASSERTS_ONLY;

        /*
         * Note: originally we guessed at a suitable output buffer size, and
         * only needed to call strxfrm twice if our guess was too small.
         * However, it seems that some versions of Solaris have buggy strxfrm
         * that can write past the specified buffer length in that scenario.
         * So, do it the dumb way for portability.
         *
         * Yet other systems (e.g., glibc) sometimes return a smaller value
         * from the second call than the first; thus the Assert must be <= not
         * == as you'd expect.  Can't any of these people program their way
         * out of a paper bag?
         *
         * XXX: strxfrm doesn't support UTF-8 encoding on Win32, it can return
         * bogus data or set an error. This is not really a problem unless it
         * crashes since it will only give an estimation error and nothing
         * fatal.
         */
#if _MSC_VER == 1400            /* VS.Net 2005 */

        /*
         *
         * http://connect.microsoft.com/VisualStudio/feedback/ViewFeedback.aspx?
         * FeedbackID=99694 */
        {
            char        x[1];

            xfrmlen = strxfrm(x, val, 0);
        }
#else
        xfrmlen = strxfrm(NULL, val, 0);
#endif
#ifdef WIN32

        /*
         * On Windows, strxfrm returns INT_MAX when an error occurs. Instead
         * of trying to allocate this much memory (and fail), just return the
         * original string unmodified as if we were in the C locale.
         */
        if (xfrmlen == INT_MAX)
            return val;
#endif
        xfrmstr = (char *) palloc(xfrmlen + 1);
        xfrmlen2 = strxfrm(xfrmstr, val, xfrmlen + 1);
        Assert(xfrmlen2 <= xfrmlen);
        pfree(val);
        val = xfrmstr;
    }

    return val;
}

/*
 * Do convert_to_scalar()'s work for any bytea data type.
 *
 * Very similar to convert_string_to_scalar except we can't assume
 * null-termination and therefore pass explicit lengths around.
 *
 * Also, assumptions about likely "normal" ranges of characters have been
 * removed - a data range of 0..255 is always used, for now.  (Perhaps
 * someday we will add information about actual byte data range to
 * pg_statistic.)
 */
static void
convert_bytea_to_scalar(Datum value,
                        double *scaledvalue,
                        Datum lobound,
                        double *scaledlobound,
                        Datum hibound,
                        double *scaledhibound)
{
    int         rangelo,
                rangehi,
                valuelen = VARSIZE(DatumGetPointer(value)) - VARHDRSZ,
                loboundlen = VARSIZE(DatumGetPointer(lobound)) - VARHDRSZ,
                hiboundlen = VARSIZE(DatumGetPointer(hibound)) - VARHDRSZ,
                i,
                minlen;
    unsigned char *valstr = (unsigned char *) VARDATA(DatumGetPointer(value)),
               *lostr = (unsigned char *) VARDATA(DatumGetPointer(lobound)),
               *histr = (unsigned char *) VARDATA(DatumGetPointer(hibound));

    /*
     * Assume bytea data is uniformly distributed across all byte values.
     */
    rangelo = 0;
    rangehi = 255;

    /*
     * Now strip any common prefix of the three strings.
     */
    minlen = Min(Min(valuelen, loboundlen), hiboundlen);
    for (i = 0; i < minlen; i++)
    {
        if (*lostr != *histr || *lostr != *valstr)
            break;
        lostr++, histr++, valstr++;
        loboundlen--, hiboundlen--, valuelen--;
    }

    /*
     * Now we can do the conversions.
     */
    *scaledvalue = convert_one_bytea_to_scalar(valstr, valuelen, rangelo, rangehi);
    *scaledlobound = convert_one_bytea_to_scalar(lostr, loboundlen, rangelo, rangehi);
    *scaledhibound = convert_one_bytea_to_scalar(histr, hiboundlen, rangelo, rangehi);
}

static double
convert_one_bytea_to_scalar(unsigned char *value, int valuelen,
                            int rangelo, int rangehi)
{
    double      num,
                denom,
                base;

    if (valuelen <= 0)
        return 0.0;             /* empty string has scalar value 0 */

    /*
     * Since base is 256, need not consider more than about 10 chars (even
     * this many seems like overkill)
     */
    if (valuelen > 10)
        valuelen = 10;

    /* Convert initial characters to fraction */
    base = rangehi - rangelo + 1;
    num = 0.0;
    denom = base;
    while (valuelen-- > 0)
    {
        int         ch = *value++;

        if (ch < rangelo)
            ch = rangelo - 1;
        else if (ch > rangehi)
            ch = rangehi + 1;
        num += ((double) (ch - rangelo)) / denom;
        denom *= base;
    }

    return num;
}

/*
 * Do convert_to_scalar()'s work for any timevalue data type.
 */
static double
convert_timevalue_to_scalar(Datum value, Oid typid)
{
    switch (typid)
    {
        case TIMESTAMPOID:
            return DatumGetTimestamp(value);
        case TIMESTAMPTZOID:
            return DatumGetTimestampTz(value);
        case ABSTIMEOID:
            return DatumGetTimestamp(DirectFunctionCall1(abstime_timestamp,
                                                         value));
        case DATEOID:
            return date2timestamp_no_overflow(DatumGetDateADT(value));
        case INTERVALOID:
            {
                Interval   *interval = DatumGetIntervalP(value);

                /*
                 * Convert the month part of Interval to days using assumed
                 * average month length of 365.25/12.0 days.  Not too
                 * accurate, but plenty good enough for our purposes.
                 */
#ifdef HAVE_INT64_TIMESTAMP
                return interval->time + interval->day * (double) USECS_PER_DAY +
                    interval->month * ((DAYS_PER_YEAR / (double) MONTHS_PER_YEAR) * USECS_PER_DAY);
#else
                return interval->time + interval->day * SECS_PER_DAY +
                    interval->month * ((DAYS_PER_YEAR / (double) MONTHS_PER_YEAR) * (double) SECS_PER_DAY);
#endif
            }
        case RELTIMEOID:
#ifdef HAVE_INT64_TIMESTAMP
            return (DatumGetRelativeTime(value) * 1000000.0);
#else
            return DatumGetRelativeTime(value);
#endif
        case TINTERVALOID:
            {
                TimeInterval tinterval = DatumGetTimeInterval(value);

#ifdef HAVE_INT64_TIMESTAMP
                if (tinterval->status != 0)
                    return ((tinterval->data[1] - tinterval->data[0]) * 1000000.0);
#else
                if (tinterval->status != 0)
                    return tinterval->data[1] - tinterval->data[0];
#endif
                return 0;       /* for lack of a better idea */
            }
        case TIMEOID:
            return DatumGetTimeADT(value);
        case TIMETZOID:
            {
                TimeTzADT  *timetz = DatumGetTimeTzADTP(value);

                /* use GMT-equivalent time */
#ifdef HAVE_INT64_TIMESTAMP
                return (double) (timetz->time + (timetz->zone * 1000000.0));
#else
                return (double) (timetz->time + timetz->zone);
#endif
            }
    }

    /*
     * Can't get here unless someone tries to use scalarltsel/scalargtsel on
     * an operator with one timevalue and one non-timevalue operand.
     */
    elog(ERROR, "unsupported type: %u", typid);
    return 0;
}


/*
 * get_restriction_variable
 *      Examine the args of a restriction clause to see if it's of the
 *      form (variable op pseudoconstant) or (pseudoconstant op variable),
 *      where "variable" could be either a Var or an expression in vars of a
 *      single relation.  If so, extract information about the variable,
 *      and also indicate which side it was on and the other argument.
 *
 * Inputs:
 *  root: the planner info
 *  args: clause argument list
 *  varRelid: see specs for restriction selectivity functions
 *
 * Outputs: (these are valid only if TRUE is returned)
 *  *vardata: gets information about variable (see examine_variable)
 *  *other: gets other clause argument, aggressively reduced to a constant
 *  *varonleft: set TRUE if variable is on the left, FALSE if on the right
 *
 * Returns TRUE if a variable is identified, otherwise FALSE.
 *
 * Note: if there are Vars on both sides of the clause, we must fail, because
 * callers are expecting that the other side will act like a pseudoconstant.
 */
bool
get_restriction_variable(PlannerInfo *root, List *args, int varRelid,
                         VariableStatData *vardata, Node **other,
                         bool *varonleft)
{
    Node       *left,
               *right;
    VariableStatData rdata;

    /* Fail if not a binary opclause (probably shouldn't happen) */
    if (list_length(args) != 2)
        return false;

    left = (Node *) linitial(args);
    right = (Node *) lsecond(args);

    /*
     * Examine both sides.  Note that when varRelid is nonzero, Vars of other
     * relations will be treated as pseudoconstants.
     */
    examine_variable(root, left, varRelid, vardata);
    examine_variable(root, right, varRelid, &rdata);

    /*
     * If one side is a variable and the other not, we win.
     */
    if (vardata->rel && rdata.rel == NULL)
    {
        *varonleft = true;
        *other = estimate_expression_value(root, rdata.var);
        /* Assume we need no ReleaseVariableStats(rdata) here */
        return true;
    }

    if (vardata->rel == NULL && rdata.rel)
    {
        *varonleft = false;
        *other = estimate_expression_value(root, vardata->var);
        /* Assume we need no ReleaseVariableStats(*vardata) here */
        *vardata = rdata;
        return true;
    }

    /* Ooops, clause has wrong structure (probably var op var) */
    ReleaseVariableStats(*vardata);
    ReleaseVariableStats(rdata);

    return false;
}

/*
 * get_join_variables
 *      Apply examine_variable() to each side of a join clause.
 *      Also, attempt to identify whether the join clause has the same
 *      or reversed sense compared to the SpecialJoinInfo.
 *
 * We consider the join clause "normal" if it is "lhs_var OP rhs_var",
 * or "reversed" if it is "rhs_var OP lhs_var".  In complicated cases
 * where we can't tell for sure, we default to assuming it's normal.
 */
void
get_join_variables(PlannerInfo *root, List *args, SpecialJoinInfo *sjinfo,
                   VariableStatData *vardata1, VariableStatData *vardata2,
                   bool *join_is_reversed)
{
    Node       *left,
               *right;

    if (list_length(args) != 2)
        elog(ERROR, "join operator should take two arguments");

    left = (Node *) linitial(args);
    right = (Node *) lsecond(args);

    examine_variable(root, left, 0, vardata1);
    examine_variable(root, right, 0, vardata2);

    if (vardata1->rel &&
        bms_is_subset(vardata1->rel->relids, sjinfo->syn_righthand))
        *join_is_reversed = true;       /* var1 is on RHS */
    else if (vardata2->rel &&
             bms_is_subset(vardata2->rel->relids, sjinfo->syn_lefthand))
        *join_is_reversed = true;       /* var2 is on LHS */
    else
        *join_is_reversed = false;
}

/*
 * examine_variable
 *      Try to look up statistical data about an expression.
 *      Fill in a VariableStatData struct to describe the expression.
 *
 * Inputs:
 *  root: the planner info
 *  node: the expression tree to examine
 *  varRelid: see specs for restriction selectivity functions
 *
 * Outputs: *vardata is filled as follows:
 *  var: the input expression (with any binary relabeling stripped, if
 *      it is or contains a variable; but otherwise the type is preserved)
 *  rel: RelOptInfo for relation containing variable; NULL if expression
 *      contains no Vars (NOTE this could point to a RelOptInfo of a
 *      subquery, not one in the current query).
 *  statsTuple: the pg_statistic entry for the variable, if one exists;
 *      otherwise NULL.
 *  freefunc: pointer to a function to release statsTuple with.
 *  vartype: exposed type of the expression; this should always match
 *      the declared input type of the operator we are estimating for.
 *  atttype, atttypmod: type data to pass to get_attstatsslot().  This is
 *      commonly the same as the exposed type of the variable argument,
 *      but can be different in binary-compatible-type cases.
 *  isunique: TRUE if we were able to match the var to a unique index or a
 *      single-column DISTINCT clause, implying its values are unique for
 *      this query.  (Caution: this should be trusted for statistical
 *      purposes only, since we do not check indimmediate nor verify that
 *      the exact same definition of equality applies.)
 *
 * Caller is responsible for doing ReleaseVariableStats() before exiting.
 */
void
examine_variable(PlannerInfo *root, Node *node, int varRelid,
                 VariableStatData *vardata)
{
    Node       *basenode;
    Relids      varnos;
    RelOptInfo *onerel;

    /* Make sure we don't return dangling pointers in vardata */
    MemSet(vardata, 0, sizeof(VariableStatData));

    /* Save the exposed type of the expression */
    vardata->vartype = exprType(node);

    /* Look inside any binary-compatible relabeling */

    if (IsA(node, RelabelType))
        basenode = (Node *) ((RelabelType *) node)->arg;
    else
        basenode = node;

    /* Fast path for a simple Var */

    if (IsA(basenode, Var) &&
        (varRelid == 0 || varRelid == ((Var *) basenode)->varno))
    {
        Var        *var = (Var *) basenode;

        /* Set up result fields other than the stats tuple */
        vardata->var = basenode;    /* return Var without relabeling */
        vardata->rel = find_base_rel(root, var->varno);
        vardata->atttype = var->vartype;
        vardata->atttypmod = var->vartypmod;
        vardata->isunique = has_unique_index(vardata->rel, var->varattno);

        /* Try to locate some stats */
        examine_simple_variable(root, var, vardata);

        return;
    }

    /*
     * Okay, it's a more complicated expression.  Determine variable
     * membership.  Note that when varRelid isn't zero, only vars of that
     * relation are considered "real" vars.
     */
    varnos = pull_varnos(basenode);

    onerel = NULL;

    switch (bms_membership(varnos))
    {
        case BMS_EMPTY_SET:
            /* No Vars at all ... must be pseudo-constant clause */
            break;
        case BMS_SINGLETON:
            if (varRelid == 0 || bms_is_member(varRelid, varnos))
            {
                onerel = find_base_rel(root,
                       (varRelid ? varRelid : bms_singleton_member(varnos)));
                vardata->rel = onerel;
                node = basenode;    /* strip any relabeling */
            }
            /* else treat it as a constant */
            break;
        case BMS_MULTIPLE:
            if (varRelid == 0)
            {
                /* treat it as a variable of a join relation */
                vardata->rel = find_join_rel(root, varnos);
                node = basenode;    /* strip any relabeling */
            }
            else if (bms_is_member(varRelid, varnos))
            {
                /* ignore the vars belonging to other relations */
                vardata->rel = find_base_rel(root, varRelid);
                node = basenode;    /* strip any relabeling */
                /* note: no point in expressional-index search here */
            }
            /* else treat it as a constant */
            break;
    }

    bms_free(varnos);

    vardata->var = node;
    vardata->atttype = exprType(node);
    vardata->atttypmod = exprTypmod(node);

    if (onerel)
    {
        /*
         * We have an expression in vars of a single relation.  Try to match
         * it to expressional index columns, in hopes of finding some
         * statistics.
         *
         * XXX it's conceivable that there are multiple matches with different
         * index opfamilies; if so, we need to pick one that matches the
         * operator we are estimating for.  FIXME later.
         */
        ListCell   *ilist;

        foreach(ilist, onerel->indexlist)
        {
            IndexOptInfo *index = (IndexOptInfo *) lfirst(ilist);
            ListCell   *indexpr_item;
            int         pos;

            indexpr_item = list_head(index->indexprs);
            if (indexpr_item == NULL)
                continue;       /* no expressions here... */

            for (pos = 0; pos < index->ncolumns; pos++)
            {
                if (index->indexkeys[pos] == 0)
                {
                    Node       *indexkey;

                    if (indexpr_item == NULL)
                        elog(ERROR, "too few entries in indexprs list");
                    indexkey = (Node *) lfirst(indexpr_item);
                    if (indexkey && IsA(indexkey, RelabelType))
                        indexkey = (Node *) ((RelabelType *) indexkey)->arg;
                    if (equal(node, indexkey))
                    {
                        /*
                         * Found a match ... is it a unique index? Tests here
                         * should match has_unique_index().
                         */
                        if (index->unique &&
                            index->ncolumns == 1 &&
                            (index->indpred == NIL || index->predOK))
                            vardata->isunique = true;

                        /*
                         * Has it got stats?  We only consider stats for
                         * non-partial indexes, since partial indexes probably
                         * don't reflect whole-relation statistics; the above
                         * check for uniqueness is the only info we take from
                         * a partial index.
                         *
                         * An index stats hook, however, must make its own
                         * decisions about what to do with partial indexes.
                         */
                        if (get_index_stats_hook &&
                            (*get_index_stats_hook) (root, index->indexoid,
                                                     pos + 1, vardata))
                        {
                            /*
                             * The hook took control of acquiring a stats
                             * tuple.  If it did supply a tuple, it'd better
                             * have supplied a freefunc.
                             */
                            if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple) &&
                                !vardata->freefunc)
                                elog(ERROR, "no function provided to release variable stats with");
                        }
                        else if (index->indpred == NIL)
                        {
                            vardata->statsTuple =
                                SearchSysCache3(STATRELATTINH,
                                           ObjectIdGetDatum(index->indexoid),
                                                Int16GetDatum(pos + 1),
                                                BoolGetDatum(false));
                            vardata->freefunc = ReleaseSysCache;
                        }
                        if (vardata->statsTuple)
                            break;
                    }
                    indexpr_item = lnext(indexpr_item);
                }
            }
            if (vardata->statsTuple)
                break;
        }
    }
}

/*
 * examine_simple_variable
 *      Handle a simple Var for examine_variable
 *
 * This is split out as a subroutine so that we can recurse to deal with
 * Vars referencing subqueries.
 *
 * We already filled in all the fields of *vardata except for the stats tuple.
 */
static void
examine_simple_variable(PlannerInfo *root, Var *var,
                        VariableStatData *vardata)
{
    RangeTblEntry *rte = root->simple_rte_array[var->varno];

    Assert(IsA(rte, RangeTblEntry));

    if (get_relation_stats_hook &&
        (*get_relation_stats_hook) (root, rte, var->varattno, vardata))
    {
        /*
         * The hook took control of acquiring a stats tuple.  If it did supply
         * a tuple, it'd better have supplied a freefunc.
         */
        if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple) &&
            !vardata->freefunc)
            elog(ERROR, "no function provided to release variable stats with");
    }
    else if (rte->rtekind == RTE_RELATION)
    {
        /*
         * Plain table or parent of an inheritance appendrel, so look up the
         * column in pg_statistic
         */
        vardata->statsTuple = SearchSysCache3(STATRELATTINH,
                                              ObjectIdGetDatum(rte->relid),
                                              Int16GetDatum(var->varattno),
                                              BoolGetDatum(rte->inh));
        vardata->freefunc = ReleaseSysCache;
    }
    else if (rte->rtekind == RTE_SUBQUERY && !rte->inh)
    {
        /*
         * Plain subquery (not one that was converted to an appendrel).
         */
        Query      *subquery = rte->subquery;
        RelOptInfo *rel;
        TargetEntry *ste;

        /*
         * Punt if subquery uses set operations or GROUP BY, as these will
         * mash underlying columns' stats beyond recognition.  (Set ops are
         * particularly nasty; if we forged ahead, we would return stats
         * relevant to only the leftmost subselect...)  DISTINCT is also
         * problematic, but we check that later because there is a possibility
         * of learning something even with it.
         */
        if (subquery->setOperations ||
            subquery->groupClause)
            return;

        /*
         * OK, fetch RelOptInfo for subquery.  Note that we don't change the
         * rel returned in vardata, since caller expects it to be a rel of the
         * caller's query level.  Because we might already be recursing, we
         * can't use that rel pointer either, but have to look up the Var's
         * rel afresh.
         */
        rel = find_base_rel(root, var->varno);

        /* If the subquery hasn't been planned yet, we have to punt */
        if (rel->subroot == NULL)
            return;
        Assert(IsA(rel->subroot, PlannerInfo));

        /*
         * Switch our attention to the subquery as mangled by the planner. It
         * was okay to look at the pre-planning version for the tests above,
         * but now we need a Var that will refer to the subroot's live
         * RelOptInfos.  For instance, if any subquery pullup happened during
         * planning, Vars in the targetlist might have gotten replaced, and we
         * need to see the replacement expressions.
         */
        subquery = rel->subroot->parse;
        Assert(IsA(subquery, Query));

        /* Get the subquery output expression referenced by the upper Var */
        ste = get_tle_by_resno(subquery->targetList, var->varattno);
        if (ste == NULL || ste->resjunk)
            elog(ERROR, "subquery %s does not have attribute %d",
                 rte->eref->aliasname, var->varattno);
        var = (Var *) ste->expr;

        /*
         * If subquery uses DISTINCT, we can't make use of any stats for the
         * variable ... but, if it's the only DISTINCT column, we are entitled
         * to consider it unique.  We do the test this way so that it works
         * for cases involving DISTINCT ON.
         */
        if (subquery->distinctClause)
        {
            if (list_length(subquery->distinctClause) == 1 &&
                targetIsInSortList(ste, InvalidOid, subquery->distinctClause))
                vardata->isunique = true;
            /* cannot go further */
            return;
        }

        /*
         * If the sub-query originated from a view with the security_barrier
         * attribute, we must not look at the variable's statistics, though it
         * seems all right to notice the existence of a DISTINCT clause. So
         * stop here.
         *
         * This is probably a harsher restriction than necessary; it's
         * certainly OK for the selectivity estimator (which is a C function,
         * and therefore omnipotent anyway) to look at the statistics.  But
         * many selectivity estimators will happily *invoke the operator
         * function* to try to work out a good estimate - and that's not OK.
         * So for now, don't dig down for stats.
         */
        if (rte->security_barrier)
            return;

        /* Can only handle a simple Var of subquery's query level */
        if (var && IsA(var, Var) &&
            var->varlevelsup == 0)
        {
            /*
             * OK, recurse into the subquery.  Note that the original setting
             * of vardata->isunique (which will surely be false) is left
             * unchanged in this situation.  That's what we want, since even
             * if the underlying column is unique, the subquery may have
             * joined to other tables in a way that creates duplicates.
             */
            examine_simple_variable(rel->subroot, var, vardata);
        }
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * Otherwise, the Var comes from a FUNCTION, VALUES, or CTE RTE.  (We
         * won't see RTE_JOIN here because join alias Vars have already been
         * flattened.)  There's not much we can do with function outputs, but
         * maybe someday try to be smarter about VALUES and/or CTEs.
         */
    }
}

/*
 * get_variable_numdistinct
 *    Estimate the number of distinct values of a variable.
 *
 * vardata: results of examine_variable
 * *isdefault: set to TRUE if the result is a default rather than based on
 * anything meaningful.
 *
 * NB: be careful to produce an integral result, since callers may compare
 * the result to exact integer counts.
 */
double
get_variable_numdistinct(VariableStatData *vardata, bool *isdefault)
{
    double      stadistinct;
    double      ntuples;

    *isdefault = false;

    /*
     * Determine the stadistinct value to use.  There are cases where we can
     * get an estimate even without a pg_statistic entry, or can get a better
     * value than is in pg_statistic.
     */
    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple))
    {
        /* Use the pg_statistic entry */
        Form_pg_statistic stats;

        stats = (Form_pg_statistic) GETSTRUCT(vardata->statsTuple);
        stadistinct = stats->stadistinct;
    }
    else if (vardata->vartype == BOOLOID)
    {
        /*
         * Special-case boolean columns: presumably, two distinct values.
         *
         * Are there any other datatypes we should wire in special estimates
         * for?
         */
        stadistinct = 2.0;
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * We don't keep statistics for system columns, but in some cases we
         * can infer distinctness anyway.
         */
        if (vardata->var && IsA(vardata->var, Var))
        {
            switch (((Var *) vardata->var)->varattno)
            {
                case ObjectIdAttributeNumber:
                case SelfItemPointerAttributeNumber:
                    stadistinct = -1.0; /* unique */
                    break;
                case TableOidAttributeNumber:
                    stadistinct = 1.0;  /* only 1 value */
                    break;
                default:
                    stadistinct = 0.0;  /* means "unknown" */
                    break;
            }
        }
        else
            stadistinct = 0.0;  /* means "unknown" */

        /*
         * XXX consider using estimate_num_groups on expressions?
         */
    }

    /*
     * If there is a unique index or DISTINCT clause for the variable, assume
     * it is unique no matter what pg_statistic says; the statistics could be
     * out of date, or we might have found a partial unique index that proves
     * the var is unique for this query.
     */
    if (vardata->isunique)
        stadistinct = -1.0;

    /*
     * If we had an absolute estimate, use that.
     */
    if (stadistinct > 0.0)
        return stadistinct;

    /*
     * Otherwise we need to get the relation size; punt if not available.
     */
    if (vardata->rel == NULL)
    {
        *isdefault = true;
        return DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT;
    }
    ntuples = vardata->rel->tuples;
    if (ntuples <= 0.0)
    {
        *isdefault = true;
        return DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT;
    }

    /*
     * If we had a relative estimate, use that.
     */
    if (stadistinct < 0.0)
        return floor((-stadistinct * ntuples) + 0.5);

    /*
     * With no data, estimate ndistinct = ntuples if the table is small, else
     * use default.  We use DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT as the cutoff for "small" so
     * that the behavior isn't discontinuous.
     */
    if (ntuples < DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT)
        return ntuples;

    *isdefault = true;
    return DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT;
}

/*
 * get_variable_range
 *      Estimate the minimum and maximum value of the specified variable.
 *      If successful, store values in *min and *max, and return TRUE.
 *      If no data available, return FALSE.
 *
 * sortop is the "<" comparison operator to use.  This should generally
 * be "<" not ">", as only the former is likely to be found in pg_statistic.
 */
static bool
get_variable_range(PlannerInfo *root, VariableStatData *vardata, Oid sortop,
                   Datum *min, Datum *max)
{
    Datum       tmin = 0;
    Datum       tmax = 0;
    bool        have_data = false;
    int16       typLen;
    bool        typByVal;
    Datum      *values;
    int         nvalues;
    int         i;

    /*
     * XXX It's very tempting to try to use the actual column min and max, if
     * we can get them relatively-cheaply with an index probe.  However, since
     * this function is called many times during join planning, that could
     * have unpleasant effects on planning speed.  Need more investigation
     * before enabling this.
     */
#ifdef NOT_USED
    if (get_actual_variable_range(root, vardata, sortop, min, max))
        return true;
#endif

    if (!HeapTupleIsValid(vardata->statsTuple))
    {
        /* no stats available, so default result */
        return false;
    }

    get_typlenbyval(vardata->atttype, &typLen, &typByVal);

    /*
     * If there is a histogram, grab the first and last values.
     *
     * If there is a histogram that is sorted with some other operator than
     * the one we want, fail --- this suggests that there is data we can't
     * use.
     */
    if (get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                         vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                         STATISTIC_KIND_HISTOGRAM, sortop,
                         NULL,
                         &values, &nvalues,
                         NULL, NULL))
    {
        if (nvalues > 0)
        {
            tmin = datumCopy(values[0], typByVal, typLen);
            tmax = datumCopy(values[nvalues - 1], typByVal, typLen);
            have_data = true;
        }
        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues, NULL, 0);
    }
    else if (get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                              vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                              STATISTIC_KIND_HISTOGRAM, InvalidOid,
                              NULL,
                              &values, &nvalues,
                              NULL, NULL))
    {
        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues, NULL, 0);
        return false;
    }

    /*
     * If we have most-common-values info, look for extreme MCVs.  This is
     * needed even if we also have a histogram, since the histogram excludes
     * the MCVs.  However, usually the MCVs will not be the extreme values, so
     * avoid unnecessary data copying.
     */
    if (get_attstatsslot(vardata->statsTuple,
                         vardata->atttype, vardata->atttypmod,
                         STATISTIC_KIND_MCV, InvalidOid,
                         NULL,
                         &values, &nvalues,
                         NULL, NULL))
    {
        bool        tmin_is_mcv = false;
        bool        tmax_is_mcv = false;
        FmgrInfo    opproc;

        fmgr_info(get_opcode(sortop), &opproc);

        for (i = 0; i < nvalues; i++)
        {
            if (!have_data)
            {
                tmin = tmax = values[i];
                tmin_is_mcv = tmax_is_mcv = have_data = true;
                continue;
            }
            if (DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&opproc,
                                               DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                               values[i], tmin)))
            {
                tmin = values[i];
                tmin_is_mcv = true;
            }
            if (DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&opproc,
                                               DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
                                               tmax, values[i])))
            {
                tmax = values[i];
                tmax_is_mcv = true;
            }
        }
        if (tmin_is_mcv)
            tmin = datumCopy(tmin, typByVal, typLen);
        if (tmax_is_mcv)
            tmax = datumCopy(tmax, typByVal, typLen);
        free_attstatsslot(vardata->atttype, values, nvalues, NULL, 0);
    }

    *min = tmin;
    *max = tmax;
    return have_data;
}


/*
 * get_actual_variable_range
 *      Attempt to identify the current *actual* minimum and/or maximum
 *      of the specified variable, by looking for a suitable btree index
 *      and fetching its low and/or high values.
 *      If successful, store values in *min and *max, and return TRUE.
 *      (Either pointer can be NULL if that endpoint isn't needed.)
 *      If no data available, return FALSE.
 *
 * sortop is the "<" comparison operator to use.
 */
static bool
get_actual_variable_range(PlannerInfo *root, VariableStatData *vardata,
                          Oid sortop,
                          Datum *min, Datum *max)
{
    bool        have_data = false;
    RelOptInfo *rel = vardata->rel;
    RangeTblEntry *rte;
    ListCell   *lc;

    /* No hope if no relation or it doesn't have indexes */
    if (rel == NULL || rel->indexlist == NIL)
        return false;
    /* If it has indexes it must be a plain relation */
    rte = root->simple_rte_array[rel->relid];
    Assert(rte->rtekind == RTE_RELATION);

    /* Search through the indexes to see if any match our problem */
    foreach(lc, rel->indexlist)
    {
        IndexOptInfo *index = (IndexOptInfo *) lfirst(lc);
        ScanDirection indexscandir;

        /* Ignore non-btree indexes */
        if (index->relam != BTREE_AM_OID)
            continue;

        /*
         * Ignore partial indexes --- we only want stats that cover the entire
         * relation.
         */
        if (index->indpred != NIL)
            continue;

        /*
         * The index list might include hypothetical indexes inserted by a
         * get_relation_info hook --- don't try to access them.
         */
        if (index->hypothetical)
            continue;

        /*
         * The first index column must match the desired variable and sort
         * operator --- but we can use a descending-order index.
         */
        if (!match_index_to_operand(vardata->var, 0, index))
            continue;
        switch (get_op_opfamily_strategy(sortop, index->sortopfamily[0]))
        {
            case BTLessStrategyNumber:
                if (index->reverse_sort[0])
                    indexscandir = BackwardScanDirection;
                else
                    indexscandir = ForwardScanDirection;
                break;
            case BTGreaterStrategyNumber:
                if (index->reverse_sort[0])
                    indexscandir = ForwardScanDirection;
                else
                    indexscandir = BackwardScanDirection;
                break;
            default:
                /* index doesn't match the sortop */
                continue;
        }

        /*
         * Found a suitable index to extract data from.  We'll need an EState
         * and a bunch of other infrastructure.
         */
        {
            EState     *estate;
            ExprContext *econtext;
            MemoryContext tmpcontext;
            MemoryContext oldcontext;
            Relation    heapRel;
            Relation    indexRel;
            IndexInfo  *indexInfo;
            TupleTableSlot *slot;
            int16       typLen;
            bool        typByVal;
            ScanKeyData scankeys[1];
            IndexScanDesc index_scan;
            HeapTuple   tup;
            Datum       values[INDEX_MAX_KEYS];
            bool        isnull[INDEX_MAX_KEYS];

            estate = CreateExecutorState();
            econtext = GetPerTupleExprContext(estate);
            /* Make sure any cruft is generated in the econtext's memory */
            tmpcontext = econtext->ecxt_per_tuple_memory;
            oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(tmpcontext);

            /*
             * Open the table and index so we can read from them.  We should
             * already have at least AccessShareLock on the table, but not
             * necessarily on the index.
             */
            heapRel = heap_open(rte->relid, NoLock);
            indexRel = index_open(index->indexoid, AccessShareLock);

            /* extract index key information from the index's pg_index info */
            indexInfo = BuildIndexInfo(indexRel);

            /* some other stuff */
            slot = MakeSingleTupleTableSlot(RelationGetDescr(heapRel));
            econtext->ecxt_scantuple = slot;
            get_typlenbyval(vardata->atttype, &typLen, &typByVal);

            /* set up an IS NOT NULL scan key so that we ignore nulls */
            ScanKeyEntryInitialize(&scankeys[0],
                                   SK_ISNULL | SK_SEARCHNOTNULL,
                                   1,   /* index col to scan */
                                   InvalidStrategy,     /* no strategy */
                                   InvalidOid,  /* no strategy subtype */
                                   InvalidOid,  /* no collation */
                                   InvalidOid,  /* no reg proc for this */
                                   (Datum) 0);  /* constant */

            have_data = true;

            /* If min is requested ... */
            if (min)
            {
                index_scan = index_beginscan(heapRel, indexRel, SnapshotNow,
                                             1, 0);
                index_rescan(index_scan, scankeys, 1, NULL, 0);

                /* Fetch first tuple in sortop's direction */
                if ((tup = index_getnext(index_scan,
                                         indexscandir)) != NULL)
                {
                    /* Extract the index column values from the heap tuple */
                    ExecStoreTuple(tup, slot, InvalidBuffer, false);
                    FormIndexDatum(indexInfo, slot, estate,
                                   values, isnull);

                    /* Shouldn't have got a null, but be careful */
                    if (isnull[0])
                        elog(ERROR, "found unexpected null value in index \"%s\"",
                             RelationGetRelationName(indexRel));

                    /* Copy the index column value out to caller's context */
                    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);
                    *min = datumCopy(values[0], typByVal, typLen);
                    MemoryContextSwitchTo(tmpcontext);
                }
                else
                    have_data = false;

                index_endscan(index_scan);
            }

            /* If max is requested, and we didn't find the index is empty */
            if (max && have_data)
            {
                index_scan = index_beginscan(heapRel, indexRel, SnapshotNow,
                                             1, 0);
                index_rescan(index_scan, scankeys, 1, NULL, 0);

                /* Fetch first tuple in reverse direction */
                if ((tup = index_getnext(index_scan,
                                         -indexscandir)) != NULL)
                {
                    /* Extract the index column values from the heap tuple */
                    ExecStoreTuple(tup, slot, InvalidBuffer, false);
                    FormIndexDatum(indexInfo, slot, estate,
                                   values, isnull);

                    /* Shouldn't have got a null, but be careful */
                    if (isnull[0])
                        elog(ERROR, "found unexpected null value in index \"%s\"",
                             RelationGetRelationName(indexRel));

                    /* Copy the index column value out to caller's context */
                    MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);
                    *max = datumCopy(values[0], typByVal, typLen);
                    MemoryContextSwitchTo(tmpcontext);
                }
                else
                    have_data = false;

                index_endscan(index_scan);
            }

            /* Clean everything up */
            ExecDropSingleTupleTableSlot(slot);

            index_close(indexRel, AccessShareLock);
            heap_close(heapRel, NoLock);

            MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);
            FreeExecutorState(estate);

            /* And we're done */
            break;
        }
    }

    return have_data;
}

/*
 * find_join_input_rel
 *      Look up the input relation for a join.
 *
 * We assume that the input relation's RelOptInfo must have been constructed
 * already.
 */
static RelOptInfo *
find_join_input_rel(PlannerInfo *root, Relids relids)
{
    RelOptInfo *rel = NULL;

    switch (bms_membership(relids))
    {
        case BMS_EMPTY_SET:
            /* should not happen */
            break;
        case BMS_SINGLETON:
            rel = find_base_rel(root, bms_singleton_member(relids));
            break;
        case BMS_MULTIPLE:
            rel = find_join_rel(root, relids);
            break;
    }

    if (rel == NULL)
        elog(ERROR, "could not find RelOptInfo for given relids");

    return rel;
}


/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * Pattern analysis functions
 *
 * These routines support analysis of LIKE and regular-expression patterns
 * by the planner/optimizer.  It's important that they agree with the
 * regular-expression code in backend/regex/ and the LIKE code in
 * backend/utils/adt/like.c.  Also, the computation of the fixed prefix
 * must be conservative: if we report a string longer than the true fixed
 * prefix, the query may produce actually wrong answers, rather than just
 * getting a bad selectivity estimate!
 *
 * Note that the prefix-analysis functions are called from
 * backend/optimizer/path/indxpath.c as well as from routines in this file.
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */

/*
 * Check whether char is a letter (and, hence, subject to case-folding)
 *
 * In multibyte character sets, we can't use isalpha, and it does not seem
 * worth trying to convert to wchar_t to use iswalpha.  Instead, just assume
 * any multibyte char is potentially case-varying.
 */
static int
pattern_char_isalpha(char c, bool is_multibyte,
                     pg_locale_t locale, bool locale_is_c)
{
    if (locale_is_c)
        return (c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z') || (c >= 'a' && c <= 'z');
    else if (is_multibyte && IS_HIGHBIT_SET(c))
        return true;
#ifdef HAVE_LOCALE_T
    else if (locale)
        return isalpha_l((unsigned char) c, locale);
#endif
    else
        return isalpha((unsigned char) c);
}

/*
 * Extract the fixed prefix, if any, for a pattern.
 *
 * *prefix is set to a palloc'd prefix string (in the form of a Const node),
 *  or to NULL if no fixed prefix exists for the pattern.
 * If rest_selec is not NULL, *rest_selec is set to an estimate of the
 *  selectivity of the remainder of the pattern (without any fixed prefix).
 * The prefix Const has the same type (TEXT or BYTEA) as the input pattern.
 *
 * The return value distinguishes no fixed prefix, a partial prefix,
 * or an exact-match-only pattern.
 */

static Pattern_Prefix_Status
like_fixed_prefix(Const *patt_const, bool case_insensitive, Oid collation,
                  Const **prefix_const, Selectivity *rest_selec)
{
    char       *match;
    char       *patt;
    int         pattlen;
    Oid         typeid = patt_const->consttype;
    int         pos,
                match_pos;
    bool        is_multibyte = (pg_database_encoding_max_length() > 1);
    pg_locale_t locale = 0;
    bool        locale_is_c = false;

    /* the right-hand const is type text or bytea */
    Assert(typeid == BYTEAOID || typeid == TEXTOID);

    if (case_insensitive)
    {
        if (typeid == BYTEAOID)
            ereport(ERROR,
                    (errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
            errmsg("case insensitive matching not supported on type bytea")));

        /* If case-insensitive, we need locale info */
        if (lc_ctype_is_c(collation))
            locale_is_c = true;
        else if (collation != DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID)
        {
            if (!OidIsValid(collation))
            {
                /*
                 * This typically means that the parser could not resolve a
                 * conflict of implicit collations, so report it that way.
                 */
                ereport(ERROR,
                        (errcode(ERRCODE_INDETERMINATE_COLLATION),
                         errmsg("could not determine which collation to use for ILIKE"),
                         errhint("Use the COLLATE clause to set the collation explicitly.")));
            }
            locale = pg_newlocale_from_collation(collation);
        }
    }

    if (typeid != BYTEAOID)
    {
        patt = TextDatumGetCString(patt_const->constvalue);
        pattlen = strlen(patt);
    }
    else
    {
        bytea      *bstr = DatumGetByteaP(patt_const->constvalue);

        pattlen = VARSIZE(bstr) - VARHDRSZ;
        patt = (char *) palloc(pattlen);
        memcpy(patt, VARDATA(bstr), pattlen);
        if ((Pointer) bstr != DatumGetPointer(patt_const->constvalue))
            pfree(bstr);
    }

    match = palloc(pattlen + 1);
    match_pos = 0;
    for (pos = 0; pos < pattlen; pos++)
    {
        /* % and _ are wildcard characters in LIKE */
        if (patt[pos] == '%' ||
            patt[pos] == '_')
            break;

        /* Backslash escapes the next character */
        if (patt[pos] == '\\')
        {
            pos++;
            if (pos >= pattlen)
                break;
        }

        /* Stop if case-varying character (it's sort of a wildcard) */
        if (case_insensitive &&
          pattern_char_isalpha(patt[pos], is_multibyte, locale, locale_is_c))
            break;

        match[match_pos++] = patt[pos];
    }

    match[match_pos] = '\0';

    if (typeid != BYTEAOID)
        *prefix_const = string_to_const(match, typeid);
    else
        *prefix_const = string_to_bytea_const(match, match_pos);

    if (rest_selec != NULL)
        *rest_selec = like_selectivity(&patt[pos], pattlen - pos,
                                       case_insensitive);

    pfree(patt);
    pfree(match);

    /* in LIKE, an empty pattern is an exact match! */
    if (pos == pattlen)
        return Pattern_Prefix_Exact;    /* reached end of pattern, so exact */

    if (match_pos > 0)
        return Pattern_Prefix_Partial;

    return Pattern_Prefix_None;
}

static Pattern_Prefix_Status
regex_fixed_prefix(Const *patt_const, bool case_insensitive, Oid collation,
                   Const **prefix_const, Selectivity *rest_selec)
{
    Oid         typeid = patt_const->consttype;
    char       *prefix;
    bool        exact;

    /*
     * Should be unnecessary, there are no bytea regex operators defined. As
     * such, it should be noted that the rest of this function has *not* been
     * made safe for binary (possibly NULL containing) strings.
     */
    if (typeid == BYTEAOID)
        ereport(ERROR,
                (errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
         errmsg("regular-expression matching not supported on type bytea")));

    /* Use the regexp machinery to extract the prefix, if any */
    prefix = regexp_fixed_prefix(DatumGetTextPP(patt_const->constvalue),
                                 case_insensitive, collation,
                                 &exact);

    if (prefix == NULL)
    {
        *prefix_const = NULL;

        if (rest_selec != NULL)
        {
            char   *patt = TextDatumGetCString(patt_const->constvalue);

            *rest_selec = regex_selectivity(patt, strlen(patt),
                                            case_insensitive,
                                            0);
            pfree(patt);
        }

        return Pattern_Prefix_None;
    }

    *prefix_const = string_to_const(prefix, typeid);

    if (rest_selec != NULL)
    {
        if (exact)
        {
            /* Exact match, so there's no additional selectivity */
            *rest_selec = 1.0;
        }
        else
        {
            char   *patt = TextDatumGetCString(patt_const->constvalue);

            *rest_selec = regex_selectivity(patt, strlen(patt),
                                            case_insensitive,
                                            strlen(prefix));
            pfree(patt);
        }
    }

    pfree(prefix);

    if (exact)
        return Pattern_Prefix_Exact;    /* pattern specifies exact match */
    else
        return Pattern_Prefix_Partial;
}

Pattern_Prefix_Status
pattern_fixed_prefix(Const *patt, Pattern_Type ptype, Oid collation,
                     Const **prefix, Selectivity *rest_selec)
{
    Pattern_Prefix_Status result;

    switch (ptype)
    {
        case Pattern_Type_Like:
            result = like_fixed_prefix(patt, false, collation,
                                       prefix, rest_selec);
            break;
        case Pattern_Type_Like_IC:
            result = like_fixed_prefix(patt, true, collation,
                                       prefix, rest_selec);
            break;
        case Pattern_Type_Regex:
            result = regex_fixed_prefix(patt, false, collation,
                                        prefix, rest_selec);
            break;
        case Pattern_Type_Regex_IC:
            result = regex_fixed_prefix(patt, true, collation,
                                        prefix, rest_selec);
            break;
        default:
            elog(ERROR, "unrecognized ptype: %d", (int) ptype);
            result = Pattern_Prefix_None;       /* keep compiler quiet */
            break;
    }
    return result;
}

/*
 * Estimate the selectivity of a fixed prefix for a pattern match.
 *
 * A fixed prefix "foo" is estimated as the selectivity of the expression
 * "variable >= 'foo' AND variable < 'fop'" (see also indxpath.c).
 *
 * The selectivity estimate is with respect to the portion of the column
 * population represented by the histogram --- the caller must fold this
 * together with info about MCVs and NULLs.
 *
 * We use the >= and < operators from the specified btree opfamily to do the
 * estimation.  The given variable and Const must be of the associated
 * datatype.
 *
 * XXX Note: we make use of the upper bound to estimate operator selectivity
 * even if the locale is such that we cannot rely on the upper-bound string.
 * The selectivity only needs to be approximately right anyway, so it seems
 * more useful to use the upper-bound code than not.
 */
static Selectivity
prefix_selectivity(PlannerInfo *root, VariableStatData *vardata,
                   Oid vartype, Oid opfamily, Const *prefixcon)
{
    Selectivity prefixsel;
    Oid         cmpopr;
    FmgrInfo    opproc;
    Const      *greaterstrcon;
    Selectivity eq_sel;

    cmpopr = get_opfamily_member(opfamily, vartype, vartype,
                                 BTGreaterEqualStrategyNumber);
    if (cmpopr == InvalidOid)
        elog(ERROR, "no >= operator for opfamily %u", opfamily);
    fmgr_info(get_opcode(cmpopr), &opproc);

    prefixsel = ineq_histogram_selectivity(root, vardata, &opproc, true,
                                           prefixcon->constvalue,
                                           prefixcon->consttype);

    if (prefixsel < 0.0)
    {
        /* No histogram is present ... return a suitable default estimate */
        return DEFAULT_MATCH_SEL;
    }

    /*-------
     * If we can create a string larger than the prefix, say
     *  "x < greaterstr".
     *-------
     */
    cmpopr = get_opfamily_member(opfamily, vartype, vartype,
                                 BTLessStrategyNumber);
    if (cmpopr == InvalidOid)
        elog(ERROR, "no < operator for opfamily %u", opfamily);
    fmgr_info(get_opcode(cmpopr), &opproc);
    greaterstrcon = make_greater_string(prefixcon, &opproc,
                                        DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID);
    if (greaterstrcon)
    {
        Selectivity topsel;

        topsel = ineq_histogram_selectivity(root, vardata, &opproc, false,
                                            greaterstrcon->constvalue,
                                            greaterstrcon->consttype);

        /* ineq_histogram_selectivity worked before, it shouldn't fail now */
        Assert(topsel >= 0.0);

        /*
         * Merge the two selectivities in the same way as for a range query
         * (see clauselist_selectivity()).  Note that we don't need to worry
         * about double-exclusion of nulls, since ineq_histogram_selectivity
         * doesn't count those anyway.
         */
        prefixsel = topsel + prefixsel - 1.0;
    }

    /*
     * If the prefix is long then the two bounding values might be too close
     * together for the histogram to distinguish them usefully, resulting in a
     * zero estimate (plus or minus roundoff error). To avoid returning a
     * ridiculously small estimate, compute the estimated selectivity for
     * "variable = 'foo'", and clamp to that. (Obviously, the resultant
     * estimate should be at least that.)
     *
     * We apply this even if we couldn't make a greater string.  That case
     * suggests that the prefix is near the maximum possible, and thus
     * probably off the end of the histogram, and thus we probably got a very
     * small estimate from the >= condition; so we still need to clamp.
     */
    cmpopr = get_opfamily_member(opfamily, vartype, vartype,
                                 BTEqualStrategyNumber);
    if (cmpopr == InvalidOid)
        elog(ERROR, "no = operator for opfamily %u", opfamily);
    eq_sel = var_eq_const(vardata, cmpopr, prefixcon->constvalue,
                          false, true);

    prefixsel = Max(prefixsel, eq_sel);

    return prefixsel;
}


/*
 * Estimate the selectivity of a pattern of the specified type.
 * Note that any fixed prefix of the pattern will have been removed already,
 * so actually we may be looking at just a fragment of the pattern.
 *
 * For now, we use a very simplistic approach: fixed characters reduce the
 * selectivity a good deal, character ranges reduce it a little,
 * wildcards (such as % for LIKE or .* for regex) increase it.
 */

#define FIXED_CHAR_SEL  0.20    /* about 1/5 */
#define CHAR_RANGE_SEL  0.25
#define ANY_CHAR_SEL    0.9     /* not 1, since it won't match end-of-string */
#define FULL_WILDCARD_SEL 5.0
#define PARTIAL_WILDCARD_SEL 2.0

static Selectivity
like_selectivity(const char *patt, int pattlen, bool case_insensitive)
{
    Selectivity sel = 1.0;
    int         pos;

    /* Skip any leading wildcard; it's already factored into initial sel */
    for (pos = 0; pos < pattlen; pos++)
    {
        if (patt[pos] != '%' && patt[pos] != '_')
            break;
    }

    for (; pos < pattlen; pos++)
    {
        /* % and _ are wildcard characters in LIKE */
        if (patt[pos] == '%')
            sel *= FULL_WILDCARD_SEL;
        else if (patt[pos] == '_')
            sel *= ANY_CHAR_SEL;
        else if (patt[pos] == '\\')
        {
            /* Backslash quotes the next character */
            pos++;
            if (pos >= pattlen)
                break;
            sel *= FIXED_CHAR_SEL;
        }
        else
            sel *= FIXED_CHAR_SEL;
    }
    /* Could get sel > 1 if multiple wildcards */
    if (sel > 1.0)
        sel = 1.0;
    return sel;
}

static Selectivity
regex_selectivity_sub(const char *patt, int pattlen, bool case_insensitive)
{
    Selectivity sel = 1.0;
    int         paren_depth = 0;
    int         paren_pos = 0;  /* dummy init to keep compiler quiet */
    int         pos;

    for (pos = 0; pos < pattlen; pos++)
    {
        if (patt[pos] == '(')
        {
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                paren_pos = pos;    /* remember start of parenthesized item */
            paren_depth++;
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == ')' && paren_depth > 0)
        {
            paren_depth--;
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= regex_selectivity_sub(patt + (paren_pos + 1),
                                             pos - (paren_pos + 1),
                                             case_insensitive);
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == '|' && paren_depth == 0)
        {
            /*
             * If unquoted | is present at paren level 0 in pattern, we have
             * multiple alternatives; sum their probabilities.
             */
            sel += regex_selectivity_sub(patt + (pos + 1),
                                         pattlen - (pos + 1),
                                         case_insensitive);
            break;              /* rest of pattern is now processed */
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == '[')
        {
            bool        negclass = false;

            if (patt[++pos] == '^')
            {
                negclass = true;
                pos++;
            }
            if (patt[pos] == ']')       /* ']' at start of class is not
                                         * special */
                pos++;
            while (pos < pattlen && patt[pos] != ']')
                pos++;
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= (negclass ? (1.0 - CHAR_RANGE_SEL) : CHAR_RANGE_SEL);
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == '.')
        {
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= ANY_CHAR_SEL;
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == '*' ||
                 patt[pos] == '?' ||
                 patt[pos] == '+')
        {
            /* Ought to be smarter about quantifiers... */
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= PARTIAL_WILDCARD_SEL;
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == '{')
        {
            while (pos < pattlen && patt[pos] != '}')
                pos++;
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= PARTIAL_WILDCARD_SEL;
        }
        else if (patt[pos] == '\\')
        {
            /* backslash quotes the next character */
            pos++;
            if (pos >= pattlen)
                break;
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= FIXED_CHAR_SEL;
        }
        else
        {
            if (paren_depth == 0)
                sel *= FIXED_CHAR_SEL;
        }
    }
    /* Could get sel > 1 if multiple wildcards */
    if (sel > 1.0)
        sel = 1.0;
    return sel;
}

static Selectivity
regex_selectivity(const char *patt, int pattlen, bool case_insensitive,
                  int fixed_prefix_len)
{
    Selectivity sel;

    /* If patt doesn't end with $, consider it to have a trailing wildcard */
    if (pattlen > 0 && patt[pattlen - 1] == '$' &&
        (pattlen == 1 || patt[pattlen - 2] != '\\'))
    {
        /* has trailing $ */
        sel = regex_selectivity_sub(patt, pattlen - 1, case_insensitive);
    }
    else
    {
        /* no trailing $ */
        sel = regex_selectivity_sub(patt, pattlen, case_insensitive);
        sel *= FULL_WILDCARD_SEL;
    }

    /* If there's a fixed prefix, discount its selectivity */
    if (fixed_prefix_len > 0)
        sel /= pow(FIXED_CHAR_SEL, fixed_prefix_len);

    /* Make sure result stays in range */
    CLAMP_PROBABILITY(sel);
    return sel;
}


/*
 * For bytea, the increment function need only increment the current byte
 * (there are no multibyte characters to worry about).
 */
static bool
byte_increment(unsigned char *ptr, int len)
{
    if (*ptr >= 255)
        return false;
    (*ptr)++;
    return true;
}

/*
 * Try to generate a string greater than the given string or any
 * string it is a prefix of.  If successful, return a palloc'd string
 * in the form of a Const node; else return NULL.
 *
 * The caller must provide the appropriate "less than" comparison function
 * for testing the strings, along with the collation to use.
 *
 * The key requirement here is that given a prefix string, say "foo",
 * we must be able to generate another string "fop" that is greater than
 * all strings "foobar" starting with "foo".  We can test that we have
 * generated a string greater than the prefix string, but in non-C collations
 * that is not a bulletproof guarantee that an extension of the string might
 * not sort after it; an example is that "foo " is less than "foo!", but it
 * is not clear that a "dictionary" sort ordering will consider "foo!" less
 * than "foo bar".  CAUTION: Therefore, this function should be used only for
 * estimation purposes when working in a non-C collation.
 *
 * To try to catch most cases where an extended string might otherwise sort
 * before the result value, we determine which of the strings "Z", "z", "y",
 * and "9" is seen as largest by the collation, and append that to the given
 * prefix before trying to find a string that compares as larger.
 *
 * To search for a greater string, we repeatedly "increment" the rightmost
 * character, using an encoding-specific character incrementer function.
 * When it's no longer possible to increment the last character, we truncate
 * off that character and start incrementing the next-to-rightmost.
 * For example, if "z" were the last character in the sort order, then we
 * could produce "foo" as a string greater than "fonz".
 *
 * This could be rather slow in the worst case, but in most cases we
 * won't have to try more than one or two strings before succeeding.
 *
 * Note that it's important for the character incrementer not to be too anal
 * about producing every possible character code, since in some cases the only
 * way to get a larger string is to increment a previous character position.
 * So we don't want to spend too much time trying every possible character
 * code at the last position.  A good rule of thumb is to be sure that we
 * don't try more than 256*K values for a K-byte character (and definitely
 * not 256^K, which is what an exhaustive search would approach).
 */
Const *
make_greater_string(const Const *str_const, FmgrInfo *ltproc, Oid collation)
{
    Oid         datatype = str_const->consttype;
    char       *workstr;
    int         len;
    Datum       cmpstr;
    text       *cmptxt = NULL;
    mbcharacter_incrementer charinc;

    /*
     * Get a modifiable copy of the prefix string in C-string format, and set
     * up the string we will compare to as a Datum.  In C locale this can just
     * be the given prefix string, otherwise we need to add a suffix.  Types
     * NAME and BYTEA sort bytewise so they don't need a suffix either.
     */
    if (datatype == NAMEOID)
    {
        workstr = DatumGetCString(DirectFunctionCall1(nameout,
                                                      str_const->constvalue));
        len = strlen(workstr);
        cmpstr = str_const->constvalue;
    }
    else if (datatype == BYTEAOID)
    {
        bytea      *bstr = DatumGetByteaP(str_const->constvalue);

        len = VARSIZE(bstr) - VARHDRSZ;
        workstr = (char *) palloc(len);
        memcpy(workstr, VARDATA(bstr), len);
        if ((Pointer) bstr != DatumGetPointer(str_const->constvalue))
            pfree(bstr);
        cmpstr = str_const->constvalue;
    }
    else
    {
        workstr = TextDatumGetCString(str_const->constvalue);
        len = strlen(workstr);
        if (lc_collate_is_c(collation) || len == 0)
            cmpstr = str_const->constvalue;
        else
        {
            /* If first time through, determine the suffix to use */
            static char suffixchar = 0;
            static Oid  suffixcollation = 0;

            if (!suffixchar || suffixcollation != collation)
            {
                char       *best;

                best = "Z";
                if (varstr_cmp(best, 1, "z", 1, collation) < 0)
                    best = "z";
                if (varstr_cmp(best, 1, "y", 1, collation) < 0)
                    best = "y";
                if (varstr_cmp(best, 1, "9", 1, collation) < 0)
                    best = "9";
                suffixchar = *best;
                suffixcollation = collation;
            }

            /* And build the string to compare to */
            cmptxt = (text *) palloc(VARHDRSZ + len + 1);
            SET_VARSIZE(cmptxt, VARHDRSZ + len + 1);
            memcpy(VARDATA(cmptxt), workstr, len);
            *(VARDATA(cmptxt) + len) = suffixchar;
            cmpstr = PointerGetDatum(cmptxt);
        }
    }

    /* Select appropriate character-incrementer function */
    if (datatype == BYTEAOID)
        charinc = byte_increment;
    else
        charinc = pg_database_encoding_character_incrementer();

    /* And search ... */
    while (len > 0)
    {
        int         charlen;
        unsigned char *lastchar;

        /* Identify the last character --- for bytea, just the last byte */
        if (datatype == BYTEAOID)
            charlen = 1;
        else
            charlen = len - pg_mbcliplen(workstr, len, len - 1);
        lastchar = (unsigned char *) (workstr + len - charlen);

        /*
         * Try to generate a larger string by incrementing the last character
         * (for BYTEA, we treat each byte as a character).
         *
         * Note: the incrementer function is expected to return true if it's
         * generated a valid-per-the-encoding new character, otherwise false.
         * The contents of the character on false return are unspecified.
         */
        while (charinc(lastchar, charlen))
        {
            Const      *workstr_const;

            if (datatype == BYTEAOID)
                workstr_const = string_to_bytea_const(workstr, len);
            else
                workstr_const = string_to_const(workstr, datatype);

            if (DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(ltproc,
                                               collation,
                                               cmpstr,
                                               workstr_const->constvalue)))
            {
                /* Successfully made a string larger than cmpstr */
                if (cmptxt)
                    pfree(cmptxt);
                pfree(workstr);
                return workstr_const;
            }

            /* No good, release unusable value and try again */
            pfree(DatumGetPointer(workstr_const->constvalue));
            pfree(workstr_const);
        }

        /*
         * No luck here, so truncate off the last character and try to
         * increment the next one.
         */
        len -= charlen;
        workstr[len] = '\0';
    }

    /* Failed... */
    if (cmptxt)
        pfree(cmptxt);
    pfree(workstr);

    return NULL;
}

/*
 * Generate a Datum of the appropriate type from a C string.
 * Note that all of the supported types are pass-by-ref, so the
 * returned value should be pfree'd if no longer needed.
 */
static Datum
string_to_datum(const char *str, Oid datatype)
{
    Assert(str != NULL);

    /*
     * We cheat a little by assuming that CStringGetTextDatum() will do for
     * bpchar and varchar constants too...
     */
    if (datatype == NAMEOID)
        return DirectFunctionCall1(namein, CStringGetDatum(str));
    else if (datatype == BYTEAOID)
        return DirectFunctionCall1(byteain, CStringGetDatum(str));
    else
        return CStringGetTextDatum(str);
}

/*
 * Generate a Const node of the appropriate type from a C string.
 */
static Const *
string_to_const(const char *str, Oid datatype)
{
    Datum       conval = string_to_datum(str, datatype);
    Oid         collation;
    int         constlen;

    /*
     * We only need to support a few datatypes here, so hard-wire properties
     * instead of incurring the expense of catalog lookups.
     */
    switch (datatype)
    {
        case TEXTOID:
        case VARCHAROID:
        case BPCHAROID:
            collation = DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID;
            constlen = -1;
            break;

        case NAMEOID:
            collation = InvalidOid;
            constlen = NAMEDATALEN;
            break;

        case BYTEAOID:
            collation = InvalidOid;
            constlen = -1;
            break;

        default:
            elog(ERROR, "unexpected datatype in string_to_const: %u",
                 datatype);
            return NULL;
    }

    return makeConst(datatype, -1, collation, constlen,
                     conval, false, false);
}

/*
 * Generate a Const node of bytea type from a binary C string and a length.
 */
static Const *
string_to_bytea_const(const char *str, size_t str_len)
{
    bytea      *bstr = palloc(VARHDRSZ + str_len);
    Datum       conval;

    memcpy(VARDATA(bstr), str, str_len);
    SET_VARSIZE(bstr, VARHDRSZ + str_len);
    conval = PointerGetDatum(bstr);

    return makeConst(BYTEAOID, -1, InvalidOid, -1, conval, false, false);
}

/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * Index cost estimation functions
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */

/*
 * genericcostestimate is a general-purpose estimator that can be used for
 * most index types.  In some cases we use genericcostestimate as the base
 * code and then incorporate additional index-type-specific knowledge in
 * the type-specific calling function.  To avoid code duplication, we make
 * genericcostestimate return a number of intermediate values as well as
 * its preliminary estimates of the output cost values.  The GenericCosts
 * struct includes all these values.
 *
 * Callers should initialize all fields of GenericCosts to zero.  In addition,
 * they can set numIndexTuples to some positive value if they have a better
 * than default way of estimating the number of leaf index tuples visited.
 */
typedef struct
{
    /* These are the values the cost estimator must return to the planner */
    Cost        indexStartupCost;       /* index-related startup cost */
    Cost        indexTotalCost;         /* total index-related scan cost */
    Selectivity indexSelectivity;       /* selectivity of index */
    double      indexCorrelation;       /* order correlation of index */

    /* Intermediate values we obtain along the way */
    double      numIndexPages;          /* number of leaf pages visited */
    double      numIndexTuples;         /* number of leaf tuples visited */
    double      spc_random_page_cost;   /* relevant random_page_cost value */
    double      num_sa_scans;           /* # indexscans from ScalarArrayOps */
} GenericCosts;

static void
genericcostestimate(PlannerInfo *root,
                    IndexPath *path,
                    double loop_count,
                    GenericCosts *costs)
{
    IndexOptInfo *index = path->indexinfo;
    List       *indexQuals = path->indexquals;
    List       *indexOrderBys = path->indexorderbys;
    Cost        indexStartupCost;
    Cost        indexTotalCost;
    Selectivity indexSelectivity;
    double      indexCorrelation;
    double      numIndexPages;
    double      numIndexTuples;
    double      spc_random_page_cost;
    double      num_sa_scans;
    double      num_outer_scans;
    double      num_scans;
    QualCost    index_qual_cost;
    double      qual_op_cost;
    double      qual_arg_cost;
    List       *selectivityQuals;
    ListCell   *l;

    /*
     * If the index is partial, AND the index predicate with the explicitly
     * given indexquals to produce a more accurate idea of the index
     * selectivity.
     */
    selectivityQuals = add_predicate_to_quals(index, indexQuals);

    /*
     * Check for ScalarArrayOpExpr index quals, and estimate the number of
     * index scans that will be performed.
     */
    num_sa_scans = 1;
    foreach(l, indexQuals)
    {
        RestrictInfo *rinfo = (RestrictInfo *) lfirst(l);

        if (IsA(rinfo->clause, ScalarArrayOpExpr))
        {
            ScalarArrayOpExpr *saop = (ScalarArrayOpExpr *) rinfo->clause;
            int         alength = estimate_array_length(lsecond(saop->args));

            if (alength > 1)
                num_sa_scans *= alength;
        }
    }

    /* Estimate the fraction of main-table tuples that will be visited */
    indexSelectivity = clauselist_selectivity(root, selectivityQuals,
                                              index->rel->relid,
                                              JOIN_INNER,
                                              NULL);

    /*
     * If caller didn't give us an estimate, estimate the number of index
     * tuples that will be visited.  We do it in this rather peculiar-looking
     * way in order to get the right answer for partial indexes.
     */
    numIndexTuples = costs->numIndexTuples;
    if (numIndexTuples <= 0.0)
    {
        numIndexTuples = indexSelectivity * index->rel->tuples;

        /*
         * The above calculation counts all the tuples visited across all
         * scans induced by ScalarArrayOpExpr nodes.  We want to consider the
         * average per-indexscan number, so adjust.  This is a handy place to
         * round to integer, too.  (If caller supplied tuple estimate, it's
         * responsible for handling these considerations.)
         */
        numIndexTuples = rint(numIndexTuples / num_sa_scans);
    }

    /*
     * We can bound the number of tuples by the index size in any case. Also,
     * always estimate at least one tuple is touched, even when
     * indexSelectivity estimate is tiny.
     */
    if (numIndexTuples > index->tuples)
        numIndexTuples = index->tuples;
    if (numIndexTuples < 1.0)
        numIndexTuples = 1.0;

    /*
     * Estimate the number of index pages that will be retrieved.
     *
     * We use the simplistic method of taking a pro-rata fraction of the total
     * number of index pages.  In effect, this counts only leaf pages and not
     * any overhead such as index metapage or upper tree levels.
     *
     * In practice access to upper index levels is often nearly free because
     * those tend to stay in cache under load; moreover, the cost involved is
     * highly dependent on index type.  We therefore ignore such costs here
     * and leave it to the caller to add a suitable charge if needed.
     */
    if (index->pages > 1 && index->tuples > 1)
        numIndexPages = ceil(numIndexTuples * index->pages / index->tuples);
    else
        numIndexPages = 1.0;

    /* fetch estimated page cost for schema containing index */
    get_tablespace_page_costs(index->reltablespace,
                              &spc_random_page_cost,
                              NULL);

    /*
     * Now compute the disk access costs.
     *
     * The above calculations are all per-index-scan.  However, if we are in a
     * nestloop inner scan, we can expect the scan to be repeated (with
     * different search keys) for each row of the outer relation.  Likewise,
     * ScalarArrayOpExpr quals result in multiple index scans.  This creates
     * the potential for cache effects to reduce the number of disk page
     * fetches needed.  We want to estimate the average per-scan I/O cost in
     * the presence of caching.
     *
     * We use the Mackert-Lohman formula (see costsize.c for details) to
     * estimate the total number of page fetches that occur.  While this
     * wasn't what it was designed for, it seems a reasonable model anyway.
     * Note that we are counting pages not tuples anymore, so we take N = T =
     * index size, as if there were one "tuple" per page.
     */
    num_outer_scans = loop_count;
    num_scans = num_sa_scans * num_outer_scans;

    if (num_scans > 1)
    {
        double      pages_fetched;

        /* total page fetches ignoring cache effects */
        pages_fetched = numIndexPages * num_scans;

        /* use Mackert and Lohman formula to adjust for cache effects */
        pages_fetched = index_pages_fetched(pages_fetched,
                                            index->pages,
                                            (double) index->pages,
                                            root);

        /*
         * Now compute the total disk access cost, and then report a pro-rated
         * share for each outer scan.  (Don't pro-rate for ScalarArrayOpExpr,
         * since that's internal to the indexscan.)
         */
        indexTotalCost = (pages_fetched * spc_random_page_cost)
            / num_outer_scans;
    }
    else
    {
        /*
         * For a single index scan, we just charge spc_random_page_cost per
         * page touched.
         */
        indexTotalCost = numIndexPages * spc_random_page_cost;
    }

    /*
     * CPU cost: any complex expressions in the indexquals will need to be
     * evaluated once at the start of the scan to reduce them to runtime keys
     * to pass to the index AM (see nodeIndexscan.c).  We model the per-tuple
     * CPU costs as cpu_index_tuple_cost plus one cpu_operator_cost per
     * indexqual operator.  Because we have numIndexTuples as a per-scan
     * number, we have to multiply by num_sa_scans to get the correct result
     * for ScalarArrayOpExpr cases.  Similarly add in costs for any index
     * ORDER BY expressions.
     *
     * Note: this neglects the possible costs of rechecking lossy operators.
     * Detecting that that might be needed seems more expensive than it's
     * worth, though, considering all the other inaccuracies here ...
     */
    cost_qual_eval(&index_qual_cost, indexQuals, root);
    qual_arg_cost = index_qual_cost.startup + index_qual_cost.per_tuple;
    cost_qual_eval(&index_qual_cost, indexOrderBys, root);
    qual_arg_cost += index_qual_cost.startup + index_qual_cost.per_tuple;
    qual_op_cost = cpu_operator_cost *
        (list_length(indexQuals) + list_length(indexOrderBys));
    qual_arg_cost -= qual_op_cost;
    if (qual_arg_cost < 0)      /* just in case... */
        qual_arg_cost = 0;

    indexStartupCost = qual_arg_cost;
    indexTotalCost += qual_arg_cost;
    indexTotalCost += numIndexTuples * num_sa_scans * (cpu_index_tuple_cost + qual_op_cost);

    /*
     * Generic assumption about index correlation: there isn't any.
     */
    indexCorrelation = 0.0;

    /*
     * Return everything to caller.
     */
    costs->indexStartupCost = indexStartupCost;
    costs->indexTotalCost = indexTotalCost;
    costs->indexSelectivity = indexSelectivity;
    costs->indexCorrelation = indexCorrelation;
    costs->numIndexPages = numIndexPages;
    costs->numIndexTuples = numIndexTuples;
    costs->spc_random_page_cost = spc_random_page_cost;
    costs->num_sa_scans = num_sa_scans;
}

/*
 * If the index is partial, add its predicate to the given qual list.
 *
 * ANDing the index predicate with the explicitly given indexquals produces
 * a more accurate idea of the index's selectivity.  However, we need to be
 * careful not to insert redundant clauses, because clauselist_selectivity()
 * is easily fooled into computing a too-low selectivity estimate.  Our
 * approach is to add only the predicate clause(s) that cannot be proven to
 * be implied by the given indexquals.  This successfully handles cases such
 * as a qual "x = 42" used with a partial index "WHERE x >= 40 AND x < 50".
 * There are many other cases where we won't detect redundancy, leading to a
 * too-low selectivity estimate, which will bias the system in favor of using
 * partial indexes where possible.  That is not necessarily bad though.
 *
 * Note that indexQuals contains RestrictInfo nodes while the indpred
 * does not, so the output list will be mixed.  This is OK for both
 * predicate_implied_by() and clauselist_selectivity(), but might be
 * problematic if the result were passed to other things.
 */
static List *
add_predicate_to_quals(IndexOptInfo *index, List *indexQuals)
{
    List       *predExtraQuals = NIL;
    ListCell   *lc;

    if (index->indpred == NIL)
        return indexQuals;

    foreach(lc, index->indpred)
    {
        Node       *predQual = (Node *) lfirst(lc);
        List       *oneQual = list_make1(predQual);

        if (!predicate_implied_by(oneQual, indexQuals))
            predExtraQuals = list_concat(predExtraQuals, oneQual);
    }
    /* list_concat avoids modifying the passed-in indexQuals list */
    return list_concat(predExtraQuals, indexQuals);
}


Datum
btcostestimate(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    IndexPath  *path = (IndexPath *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(1);
    double      loop_count = PG_GETARG_FLOAT8(2);
    Cost       *indexStartupCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(3);
    Cost       *indexTotalCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    Selectivity *indexSelectivity = (Selectivity *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(5);
    double     *indexCorrelation = (double *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(6);
    IndexOptInfo *index = path->indexinfo;
    GenericCosts costs;
    Oid         relid;
    AttrNumber  colnum;
    VariableStatData vardata;
    double      numIndexTuples;
    Cost        descentCost;
    List       *indexBoundQuals;
    int         indexcol;
    bool        eqQualHere;
    bool        found_saop;
    bool        found_is_null_op;
    double      num_sa_scans;
    ListCell   *lcc,
               *lci;

    /*
     * For a btree scan, only leading '=' quals plus inequality quals for the
     * immediately next attribute contribute to index selectivity (these are
     * the "boundary quals" that determine the starting and stopping points of
     * the index scan).  Additional quals can suppress visits to the heap, so
     * it's OK to count them in indexSelectivity, but they should not count
     * for estimating numIndexTuples.  So we must examine the given indexquals
     * to find out which ones count as boundary quals.  We rely on the
     * knowledge that they are given in index column order.
     *
     * For a RowCompareExpr, we consider only the first column, just as
     * rowcomparesel() does.
     *
     * If there's a ScalarArrayOpExpr in the quals, we'll actually perform N
     * index scans not one, but the ScalarArrayOpExpr's operator can be
     * considered to act the same as it normally does.
     */
    indexBoundQuals = NIL;
    indexcol = 0;
    eqQualHere = false;
    found_saop = false;
    found_is_null_op = false;
    num_sa_scans = 1;
    forboth(lcc, path->indexquals, lci, path->indexqualcols)
    {
        RestrictInfo *rinfo = (RestrictInfo *) lfirst(lcc);
        Expr       *clause;
        Node       *leftop,
                   *rightop PG_USED_FOR_ASSERTS_ONLY;
        Oid         clause_op;
        int         op_strategy;
        bool        is_null_op = false;

        if (indexcol != lfirst_int(lci))
        {
            /* Beginning of a new column's quals */
            if (!eqQualHere)
                break;          /* done if no '=' qual for indexcol */
            eqQualHere = false;
            indexcol++;
            if (indexcol != lfirst_int(lci))
                break;          /* no quals at all for indexcol */
        }

        Assert(IsA(rinfo, RestrictInfo));
        clause = rinfo->clause;

        if (IsA(clause, OpExpr))
        {
            leftop = get_leftop(clause);
            rightop = get_rightop(clause);
            clause_op = ((OpExpr *) clause)->opno;
        }
        else if (IsA(clause, RowCompareExpr))
        {
            RowCompareExpr *rc = (RowCompareExpr *) clause;

            leftop = (Node *) linitial(rc->largs);
            rightop = (Node *) linitial(rc->rargs);
            clause_op = linitial_oid(rc->opnos);
        }
        else if (IsA(clause, ScalarArrayOpExpr))
        {
            ScalarArrayOpExpr *saop = (ScalarArrayOpExpr *) clause;

            leftop = (Node *) linitial(saop->args);
            rightop = (Node *) lsecond(saop->args);
            clause_op = saop->opno;
            found_saop = true;
        }
        else if (IsA(clause, NullTest))
        {
            NullTest   *nt = (NullTest *) clause;

            leftop = (Node *) nt->arg;
            rightop = NULL;
            clause_op = InvalidOid;
            if (nt->nulltesttype == IS_NULL)
            {
                found_is_null_op = true;
                is_null_op = true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            elog(ERROR, "unsupported indexqual type: %d",
                 (int) nodeTag(clause));
            continue;           /* keep compiler quiet */
        }

        if (match_index_to_operand(leftop, indexcol, index))
        {
            /* clause_op is correct */
        }
        else
        {
            Assert(match_index_to_operand(rightop, indexcol, index));
            /* Must flip operator to get the opfamily member */
            clause_op = get_commutator(clause_op);
        }

        /* check for equality operator */
        if (OidIsValid(clause_op))
        {
            op_strategy = get_op_opfamily_strategy(clause_op,
                                                   index->opfamily[indexcol]);
            Assert(op_strategy != 0);   /* not a member of opfamily?? */
            if (op_strategy == BTEqualStrategyNumber)
                eqQualHere = true;
        }
        else if (is_null_op)
        {
            /* IS NULL is like = for purposes of selectivity determination */
            eqQualHere = true;
        }
        /* count up number of SA scans induced by indexBoundQuals only */
        if (IsA(clause, ScalarArrayOpExpr))
        {
            ScalarArrayOpExpr *saop = (ScalarArrayOpExpr *) clause;
            int         alength = estimate_array_length(lsecond(saop->args));

            if (alength > 1)
                num_sa_scans *= alength;
        }
        indexBoundQuals = lappend(indexBoundQuals, rinfo);
    }

    /*
     * If index is unique and we found an '=' clause for each column, we can
     * just assume numIndexTuples = 1 and skip the expensive
     * clauselist_selectivity calculations.  However, a ScalarArrayOp or
     * NullTest invalidates that theory, even though it sets eqQualHere.
     */
    if (index->unique &&
        indexcol == index->ncolumns - 1 &&
        eqQualHere &&
        !found_saop &&
        !found_is_null_op)
        numIndexTuples = 1.0;
    else
    {
        List       *selectivityQuals;
        Selectivity btreeSelectivity;

        /*
         * If the index is partial, AND the index predicate with the
         * index-bound quals to produce a more accurate idea of the number of
         * rows covered by the bound conditions.
         */
        selectivityQuals = add_predicate_to_quals(index, indexBoundQuals);

        btreeSelectivity = clauselist_selectivity(root, selectivityQuals,
                                                  index->rel->relid,
                                                  JOIN_INNER,
                                                  NULL);
        numIndexTuples = btreeSelectivity * index->rel->tuples;

        /*
         * As in genericcostestimate(), we have to adjust for any
         * ScalarArrayOpExpr quals included in indexBoundQuals, and then round
         * to integer.
         */
        numIndexTuples = rint(numIndexTuples / num_sa_scans);
    }

    /*
     * Now do generic index cost estimation.
     */
    MemSet(&costs, 0, sizeof(costs));
    costs.numIndexTuples = numIndexTuples;

    genericcostestimate(root, path, loop_count, &costs);

    /*
     * Add a CPU-cost component to represent the costs of initial btree
     * descent.  We don't charge any I/O cost for touching upper btree levels,
     * since they tend to stay in cache, but we still have to do about log2(N)
     * comparisons to descend a btree of N leaf tuples.  We charge one
     * cpu_operator_cost per comparison.
     *
     * If there are ScalarArrayOpExprs, charge this once per SA scan.  The
     * ones after the first one are not startup cost so far as the overall
     * plan is concerned, so add them only to "total" cost.
     */
    if (index->tuples > 1)      /* avoid computing log(0) */
    {
        descentCost = ceil(log(index->tuples) / log(2.0)) * cpu_operator_cost;
        costs.indexStartupCost += descentCost;
        costs.indexTotalCost += costs.num_sa_scans * descentCost;
    }

    /*
     * Even though we're not charging I/O cost for touching upper btree pages,
     * it's still reasonable to charge some CPU cost per page descended
     * through.  Moreover, if we had no such charge at all, bloated indexes
     * would appear to have the same search cost as unbloated ones, at least
     * in cases where only a single leaf page is expected to be visited.  This
     * cost is somewhat arbitrarily set at 50x cpu_operator_cost per page
     * touched.  The number of such pages is btree tree height plus one (ie,
     * we charge for the leaf page too).  As above, charge once per SA scan.
     */
    descentCost = (index->tree_height + 1) * 50.0 * cpu_operator_cost;
    costs.indexStartupCost += descentCost;
    costs.indexTotalCost += costs.num_sa_scans * descentCost;

    /*
     * If we can get an estimate of the first column's ordering correlation C
     * from pg_statistic, estimate the index correlation as C for a
     * single-column index, or C * 0.75 for multiple columns. (The idea here
     * is that multiple columns dilute the importance of the first column's
     * ordering, but don't negate it entirely.  Before 8.0 we divided the
     * correlation by the number of columns, but that seems too strong.)
     */
    MemSet(&vardata, 0, sizeof(vardata));

    if (index->indexkeys[0] != 0)
    {
        /* Simple variable --- look to stats for the underlying table */
        RangeTblEntry *rte = planner_rt_fetch(index->rel->relid, root);

        Assert(rte->rtekind == RTE_RELATION);
        relid = rte->relid;
        Assert(relid != InvalidOid);
        colnum = index->indexkeys[0];

        if (get_relation_stats_hook &&
            (*get_relation_stats_hook) (root, rte, colnum, &vardata))
        {
            /*
             * The hook took control of acquiring a stats tuple.  If it did
             * supply a tuple, it'd better have supplied a freefunc.
             */
            if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple) &&
                !vardata.freefunc)
                elog(ERROR, "no function provided to release variable stats with");
        }
        else
        {
            vardata.statsTuple = SearchSysCache3(STATRELATTINH,
                                                 ObjectIdGetDatum(relid),
                                                 Int16GetDatum(colnum),
                                                 BoolGetDatum(rte->inh));
            vardata.freefunc = ReleaseSysCache;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        /* Expression --- maybe there are stats for the index itself */
        relid = index->indexoid;
        colnum = 1;

        if (get_index_stats_hook &&
            (*get_index_stats_hook) (root, relid, colnum, &vardata))
        {
            /*
             * The hook took control of acquiring a stats tuple.  If it did
             * supply a tuple, it'd better have supplied a freefunc.
             */
            if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple) &&
                !vardata.freefunc)
                elog(ERROR, "no function provided to release variable stats with");
        }
        else
        {
            vardata.statsTuple = SearchSysCache3(STATRELATTINH,
                                                 ObjectIdGetDatum(relid),
                                                 Int16GetDatum(colnum),
                                                 BoolGetDatum(false));
            vardata.freefunc = ReleaseSysCache;
        }
    }

    if (HeapTupleIsValid(vardata.statsTuple))
    {
        Oid         sortop;
        float4     *numbers;
        int         nnumbers;

        sortop = get_opfamily_member(index->opfamily[0],
                                     index->opcintype[0],
                                     index->opcintype[0],
                                     BTLessStrategyNumber);
        if (OidIsValid(sortop) &&
            get_attstatsslot(vardata.statsTuple, InvalidOid, 0,
                             STATISTIC_KIND_CORRELATION,
                             sortop,
                             NULL,
                             NULL, NULL,
                             &numbers, &nnumbers))
        {
            double      varCorrelation;

            Assert(nnumbers == 1);
            varCorrelation = numbers[0];

            if (index->reverse_sort[0])
                varCorrelation = -varCorrelation;

            if (index->ncolumns > 1)
                costs.indexCorrelation = varCorrelation * 0.75;
            else
                costs.indexCorrelation = varCorrelation;

            free_attstatsslot(InvalidOid, NULL, 0, numbers, nnumbers);
        }
    }

    ReleaseVariableStats(vardata);

    *indexStartupCost = costs.indexStartupCost;
    *indexTotalCost = costs.indexTotalCost;
    *indexSelectivity = costs.indexSelectivity;
    *indexCorrelation = costs.indexCorrelation;

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}

Datum
hashcostestimate(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    IndexPath  *path = (IndexPath *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(1);
    double      loop_count = PG_GETARG_FLOAT8(2);
    Cost       *indexStartupCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(3);
    Cost       *indexTotalCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    Selectivity *indexSelectivity = (Selectivity *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(5);
    double     *indexCorrelation = (double *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(6);
    GenericCosts costs;

    MemSet(&costs, 0, sizeof(costs));

    genericcostestimate(root, path, loop_count, &costs);

    /*
     * A hash index has no descent costs as such, since the index AM can go
     * directly to the target bucket after computing the hash value.  There
     * are a couple of other hash-specific costs that we could conceivably add
     * here, though:
     *
     * Ideally we'd charge spc_random_page_cost for each page in the target
     * bucket, not just the numIndexPages pages that genericcostestimate
     * thought we'd visit.  However in most cases we don't know which bucket
     * that will be.  There's no point in considering the average bucket size
     * because the hash AM makes sure that's always one page.
     *
     * Likewise, we could consider charging some CPU for each index tuple in
     * the bucket, if we knew how many there were.  But the per-tuple cost is
     * just a hash value comparison, not a general datatype-dependent
     * comparison, so any such charge ought to be quite a bit less than
     * cpu_operator_cost; which makes it probably not worth worrying about.
     *
     * A bigger issue is that chance hash-value collisions will result in
     * wasted probes into the heap.  We don't currently attempt to model this
     * cost on the grounds that it's rare, but maybe it's not rare enough.
     * (Any fix for this ought to consider the generic lossy-operator problem,
     * though; it's not entirely hash-specific.)
     */

    *indexStartupCost = costs.indexStartupCost;
    *indexTotalCost = costs.indexTotalCost;
    *indexSelectivity = costs.indexSelectivity;
    *indexCorrelation = costs.indexCorrelation;

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}

Datum
gistcostestimate(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    IndexPath  *path = (IndexPath *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(1);
    double      loop_count = PG_GETARG_FLOAT8(2);
    Cost       *indexStartupCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(3);
    Cost       *indexTotalCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    Selectivity *indexSelectivity = (Selectivity *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(5);
    double     *indexCorrelation = (double *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(6);
    IndexOptInfo *index = path->indexinfo;
    GenericCosts costs;
    Cost        descentCost;

    MemSet(&costs, 0, sizeof(costs));

    genericcostestimate(root, path, loop_count, &costs);

    /*
     * We model index descent costs similarly to those for btree, but to do
     * that we first need an idea of the tree height.  We somewhat arbitrarily
     * assume that the fanout is 100, meaning the tree height is at most
     * log100(index->pages).
     *
     * Although this computation isn't really expensive enough to require
     * caching, we might as well use index->tree_height to cache it.
     */
    if (index->tree_height < 0) /* unknown? */
    {
        if (index->pages > 1)   /* avoid computing log(0) */
            index->tree_height = (int) (log(index->pages) / log(100.0));
        else
            index->tree_height = 0;
    }

    /*
     * Add a CPU-cost component to represent the costs of initial descent.
     * We just use log(N) here not log2(N) since the branching factor isn't
     * necessarily two anyway.  As for btree, charge once per SA scan.
     */
    if (index->tuples > 1)      /* avoid computing log(0) */
    {
        descentCost = ceil(log(index->tuples)) * cpu_operator_cost;
        costs.indexStartupCost += descentCost;
        costs.indexTotalCost += costs.num_sa_scans * descentCost;
    }

    /*
     * Likewise add a per-page charge, calculated the same as for btrees.
     */
    descentCost = (index->tree_height + 1) * 50.0 * cpu_operator_cost;
    costs.indexStartupCost += descentCost;
    costs.indexTotalCost += costs.num_sa_scans * descentCost;

    *indexStartupCost = costs.indexStartupCost;
    *indexTotalCost = costs.indexTotalCost;
    *indexSelectivity = costs.indexSelectivity;
    *indexCorrelation = costs.indexCorrelation;

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}

Datum
spgcostestimate(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    IndexPath  *path = (IndexPath *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(1);
    double      loop_count = PG_GETARG_FLOAT8(2);
    Cost       *indexStartupCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(3);
    Cost       *indexTotalCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    Selectivity *indexSelectivity = (Selectivity *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(5);
    double     *indexCorrelation = (double *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(6);
    IndexOptInfo *index = path->indexinfo;
    GenericCosts costs;
    Cost        descentCost;

    MemSet(&costs, 0, sizeof(costs));

    genericcostestimate(root, path, loop_count, &costs);

    /*
     * We model index descent costs similarly to those for btree, but to do
     * that we first need an idea of the tree height.  We somewhat arbitrarily
     * assume that the fanout is 100, meaning the tree height is at most
     * log100(index->pages).
     *
     * Although this computation isn't really expensive enough to require
     * caching, we might as well use index->tree_height to cache it.
     */
    if (index->tree_height < 0) /* unknown? */
    {
        if (index->pages > 1)   /* avoid computing log(0) */
            index->tree_height = (int) (log(index->pages) / log(100.0));
        else
            index->tree_height = 0;
    }

    /*
     * Add a CPU-cost component to represent the costs of initial descent.
     * We just use log(N) here not log2(N) since the branching factor isn't
     * necessarily two anyway.  As for btree, charge once per SA scan.
     */
    if (index->tuples > 1)      /* avoid computing log(0) */
    {
        descentCost = ceil(log(index->tuples)) * cpu_operator_cost;
        costs.indexStartupCost += descentCost;
        costs.indexTotalCost += costs.num_sa_scans * descentCost;
    }

    /*
     * Likewise add a per-page charge, calculated the same as for btrees.
     */
    descentCost = (index->tree_height + 1) * 50.0 * cpu_operator_cost;
    costs.indexStartupCost += descentCost;
    costs.indexTotalCost += costs.num_sa_scans * descentCost;

    *indexStartupCost = costs.indexStartupCost;
    *indexTotalCost = costs.indexTotalCost;
    *indexSelectivity = costs.indexSelectivity;
    *indexCorrelation = costs.indexCorrelation;

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}


/*
 * Support routines for gincostestimate
 */

typedef struct
{
    bool        haveFullScan;
    double      partialEntries;
    double      exactEntries;
    double      searchEntries;
    double      arrayScans;
} GinQualCounts;

/* Find the index column matching "op"; return its index, or -1 if no match */
static int
find_index_column(Node *op, IndexOptInfo *index)
{
    int         i;

    for (i = 0; i < index->ncolumns; i++)
    {
        if (match_index_to_operand(op, i, index))
            return i;
    }

    return -1;
}

/*
 * Estimate the number of index terms that need to be searched for while
 * testing the given GIN query, and increment the counts in *counts
 * appropriately.  If the query is unsatisfiable, return false.
 */
static bool
gincost_pattern(IndexOptInfo *index, int indexcol,
                Oid clause_op, Datum query,
                GinQualCounts *counts)
{
    Oid         extractProcOid;
    Oid         collation;
    int         strategy_op;
    Oid         lefttype,
                righttype;
    int32       nentries = 0;
    bool       *partial_matches = NULL;
    Pointer    *extra_data = NULL;
    bool       *nullFlags = NULL;
    int32       searchMode = GIN_SEARCH_MODE_DEFAULT;
    int32       i;

    /*
     * Get the operator's strategy number and declared input data types within
     * the index opfamily.  (We don't need the latter, but we use
     * get_op_opfamily_properties because it will throw error if it fails to
     * find a matching pg_amop entry.)
     */
    get_op_opfamily_properties(clause_op, index->opfamily[indexcol], false,
                               &strategy_op, &lefttype, &righttype);

    /*
     * GIN always uses the "default" support functions, which are those with
     * lefttype == righttype == the opclass' opcintype (see
     * IndexSupportInitialize in relcache.c).
     */
    extractProcOid = get_opfamily_proc(index->opfamily[indexcol],
                                       index->opcintype[indexcol],
                                       index->opcintype[indexcol],
                                       GIN_EXTRACTQUERY_PROC);

    if (!OidIsValid(extractProcOid))
    {
        /* should not happen; throw same error as index_getprocinfo */
        elog(ERROR, "missing support function %d for attribute %d of index \"%s\"",
             GIN_EXTRACTQUERY_PROC, indexcol + 1,
             get_rel_name(index->indexoid));
    }

    /*
     * Choose collation to pass to extractProc (should match initGinState).
     */
    if (OidIsValid(index->indexcollations[indexcol]))
        collation = index->indexcollations[indexcol];
    else
        collation = DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID;

    OidFunctionCall7Coll(extractProcOid,
                     collation,
                     query,
                     PointerGetDatum(&nentries),
                     UInt16GetDatum(strategy_op),
                     PointerGetDatum(&partial_matches),
                     PointerGetDatum(&extra_data),
                     PointerGetDatum(&nullFlags),
                     PointerGetDatum(&searchMode));

    if (nentries <= 0 && searchMode == GIN_SEARCH_MODE_DEFAULT)
    {
        /* No match is possible */
        return false;
    }

    for (i = 0; i < nentries; i++)
    {
        /*
         * For partial match we haven't any information to estimate number of
         * matched entries in index, so, we just estimate it as 100
         */
        if (partial_matches && partial_matches[i])
            counts->partialEntries += 100;
        else
            counts->exactEntries++;

        counts->searchEntries++;
    }

    if (searchMode == GIN_SEARCH_MODE_INCLUDE_EMPTY)
    {
        /* Treat "include empty" like an exact-match item */
        counts->exactEntries++;
        counts->searchEntries++;
    }
    else if (searchMode != GIN_SEARCH_MODE_DEFAULT)
    {
        /* It's GIN_SEARCH_MODE_ALL */
        counts->haveFullScan = true;
    }

    return true;
}

/*
 * Estimate the number of index terms that need to be searched for while
 * testing the given GIN index clause, and increment the counts in *counts
 * appropriately.  If the query is unsatisfiable, return false.
 */
static bool
gincost_opexpr(IndexOptInfo *index, OpExpr *clause, GinQualCounts *counts)
{
    Node       *leftop = get_leftop((Expr *) clause);
    Node       *rightop = get_rightop((Expr *) clause);
    Oid         clause_op = clause->opno;
    int         indexcol;
    Node       *operand;

    /* Locate the operand being compared to the index column */
    if ((indexcol = find_index_column(leftop, index)) >= 0)
    {
        operand = rightop;
    }
    else if ((indexcol = find_index_column(rightop, index)) >= 0)
    {
        operand = leftop;
        clause_op = get_commutator(clause_op);
    }
    else
    {
        elog(ERROR, "could not match index to operand");
        operand = NULL;         /* keep compiler quiet */
    }

    if (IsA(operand, RelabelType))
        operand = (Node *) ((RelabelType *) operand)->arg;

    /*
     * It's impossible to call extractQuery method for unknown operand. So
     * unless operand is a Const we can't do much; just assume there will be
     * one ordinary search entry from the operand at runtime.
     */
    if (!IsA(operand, Const))
    {
        counts->exactEntries++;
        counts->searchEntries++;
        return true;
    }

    /* If Const is null, there can be no matches */
    if (((Const *) operand)->constisnull)
        return false;

    /* Otherwise, apply extractQuery and get the actual term counts */
    return gincost_pattern(index, indexcol, clause_op,
                           ((Const *) operand)->constvalue,
                           counts);
}

/*
 * Estimate the number of index terms that need to be searched for while
 * testing the given GIN index clause, and increment the counts in *counts
 * appropriately.  If the query is unsatisfiable, return false.
 *
 * A ScalarArrayOpExpr will give rise to N separate indexscans at runtime,
 * each of which involves one value from the RHS array, plus all the
 * non-array quals (if any).  To model this, we average the counts across
 * the RHS elements, and add the averages to the counts in *counts (which
 * correspond to per-indexscan costs).  We also multiply counts->arrayScans
 * by N, causing gincostestimate to scale up its estimates accordingly.
 */
static bool
gincost_scalararrayopexpr(IndexOptInfo *index, ScalarArrayOpExpr *clause,
                          double numIndexEntries,
                          GinQualCounts *counts)
{
    Node       *leftop = (Node *) linitial(clause->args);
    Node       *rightop = (Node *) lsecond(clause->args);
    Oid         clause_op = clause->opno;
    int         indexcol;
    ArrayType  *arrayval;
    int16       elmlen;
    bool        elmbyval;
    char        elmalign;
    int         numElems;
    Datum      *elemValues;
    bool       *elemNulls;
    GinQualCounts arraycounts;
    int         numPossible = 0;
    int         i;

    Assert(clause->useOr);

    /* index column must be on the left */
    if ((indexcol = find_index_column(leftop, index)) < 0)
        elog(ERROR, "could not match index to operand");

    if (IsA(rightop, RelabelType))
        rightop = (Node *) ((RelabelType *) rightop)->arg;

    /*
     * It's impossible to call extractQuery method for unknown operand. So
     * unless operand is a Const we can't do much; just assume there will be
     * one ordinary search entry from each array entry at runtime, and fall
     * back on a probably-bad estimate of the number of array entries.
     */
    if (!IsA(rightop, Const))
    {
        counts->exactEntries++;
        counts->searchEntries++;
        counts->arrayScans *= estimate_array_length(rightop);
        return true;
    }

    /* If Const is null, there can be no matches */
    if (((Const *) rightop)->constisnull)
        return false;

    /* Otherwise, extract the array elements and iterate over them */
    arrayval = DatumGetArrayTypeP(((Const *) rightop)->constvalue);
    get_typlenbyvalalign(ARR_ELEMTYPE(arrayval),
                         &elmlen, &elmbyval, &elmalign);
    deconstruct_array(arrayval,
                      ARR_ELEMTYPE(arrayval),
                      elmlen, elmbyval, elmalign,
                      &elemValues, &elemNulls, &numElems);

    memset(&arraycounts, 0, sizeof(arraycounts));

    for (i = 0; i < numElems; i++)
    {
        GinQualCounts elemcounts;

        /* NULL can't match anything, so ignore, as the executor will */
        if (elemNulls[i])
            continue;

        /* Otherwise, apply extractQuery and get the actual term counts */
        memset(&elemcounts, 0, sizeof(elemcounts));

        if (gincost_pattern(index, indexcol, clause_op, elemValues[i],
                            &elemcounts))
        {
            /* We ignore array elements that are unsatisfiable patterns */
            numPossible++;

            if (elemcounts.haveFullScan)
            {
                /*
                 * Full index scan will be required.  We treat this as if
                 * every key in the index had been listed in the query; is
                 * that reasonable?
                 */
                elemcounts.partialEntries = 0;
                elemcounts.exactEntries = numIndexEntries;
                elemcounts.searchEntries = numIndexEntries;
            }
            arraycounts.partialEntries += elemcounts.partialEntries;
            arraycounts.exactEntries += elemcounts.exactEntries;
            arraycounts.searchEntries += elemcounts.searchEntries;
        }
    }

    if (numPossible == 0)
    {
        /* No satisfiable patterns in the array */
        return false;
    }

    /*
     * Now add the averages to the global counts.  This will give us an
     * estimate of the average number of terms searched for in each indexscan,
     * including contributions from both array and non-array quals.
     */
    counts->partialEntries += arraycounts.partialEntries / numPossible;
    counts->exactEntries += arraycounts.exactEntries / numPossible;
    counts->searchEntries += arraycounts.searchEntries / numPossible;

    counts->arrayScans *= numPossible;

    return true;
}

/*
 * GIN has search behavior completely different from other index types
 */
Datum
gincostestimate(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
    PlannerInfo *root = (PlannerInfo *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
    IndexPath  *path = (IndexPath *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(1);
    double      loop_count = PG_GETARG_FLOAT8(2);
    Cost       *indexStartupCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(3);
    Cost       *indexTotalCost = (Cost *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(4);
    Selectivity *indexSelectivity = (Selectivity *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(5);
    double     *indexCorrelation = (double *) PG_GETARG_POINTER(6);
    IndexOptInfo *index = path->indexinfo;
    List       *indexQuals = path->indexquals;
    List       *indexOrderBys = path->indexorderbys;
    ListCell   *l;
    List       *selectivityQuals;
    double      numPages = index->pages,
                numTuples = index->tuples;
    double      numEntryPages,
                numDataPages,
                numPendingPages,
                numEntries;
    GinQualCounts counts;
    bool        matchPossible;
    double      entryPagesFetched,
                dataPagesFetched,
                dataPagesFetchedBySel;
    double      qual_op_cost,
                qual_arg_cost,
                spc_random_page_cost,
                outer_scans;
    QualCost    index_qual_cost;
    Relation    indexRel;
    GinStatsData ginStats;

    /*
     * Obtain statistic information from the meta page
     */
    indexRel = index_open(index->indexoid, AccessShareLock);
    ginGetStats(indexRel, &ginStats);
    index_close(indexRel, AccessShareLock);

    numEntryPages = ginStats.nEntryPages;
    numDataPages = ginStats.nDataPages;
    numPendingPages = ginStats.nPendingPages;
    numEntries = ginStats.nEntries;

    /*
     * nPendingPages can be trusted, but the other fields are as of the last
     * VACUUM.  Scale them by the ratio numPages / nTotalPages to account for
     * growth since then.  If the fields are zero (implying no VACUUM at all,
     * and an index created pre-9.1), assume all pages are entry pages.
     */
    if (ginStats.nTotalPages == 0 || ginStats.nEntryPages == 0)
    {
        numEntryPages = numPages;
        numDataPages = 0;
        numEntries = numTuples; /* bogus, but no other info available */
    }
    else
    {
        double      scale = numPages / ginStats.nTotalPages;

        numEntryPages = ceil(numEntryPages * scale);
        numDataPages = ceil(numDataPages * scale);
        numEntries = ceil(numEntries * scale);
        /* ensure we didn't round up too much */
        numEntryPages = Min(numEntryPages, numPages);
        numDataPages = Min(numDataPages, numPages - numEntryPages);
    }

    /* In an empty index, numEntries could be zero.  Avoid divide-by-zero */
    if (numEntries < 1)
        numEntries = 1;

    /*
     * Include predicate in selectivityQuals (should match
     * genericcostestimate)
     */
    if (index->indpred != NIL)
    {
        List       *predExtraQuals = NIL;

        foreach(l, index->indpred)
        {
            Node       *predQual = (Node *) lfirst(l);
            List       *oneQual = list_make1(predQual);

            if (!predicate_implied_by(oneQual, indexQuals))
                predExtraQuals = list_concat(predExtraQuals, oneQual);
        }
        /* list_concat avoids modifying the passed-in indexQuals list */
        selectivityQuals = list_concat(predExtraQuals, indexQuals);
    }
    else
        selectivityQuals = indexQuals;

    /* Estimate the fraction of main-table tuples that will be visited */
    *indexSelectivity = clauselist_selectivity(root, selectivityQuals,
                                               index->rel->relid,
                                               JOIN_INNER,
                                               NULL);

    /* fetch estimated page cost for schema containing index */
    get_tablespace_page_costs(index->reltablespace,
                              &spc_random_page_cost,
                              NULL);

    /*
     * Generic assumption about index correlation: there isn't any.
     */
    *indexCorrelation = 0.0;

    /*
     * Examine quals to estimate number of search entries & partial matches
     */
    memset(&counts, 0, sizeof(counts));
    counts.arrayScans = 1;
    matchPossible = true;

    foreach(l, indexQuals)
    {
        RestrictInfo *rinfo = (RestrictInfo *) lfirst(l);
        Expr       *clause;

        Assert(IsA(rinfo, RestrictInfo));
        clause = rinfo->clause;
        if (IsA(clause, OpExpr))
        {
            matchPossible = gincost_opexpr(index,
                                           (OpExpr *) clause,
                                           &counts);
            if (!matchPossible)
                break;
        }
        else if (IsA(clause, ScalarArrayOpExpr))
        {
            matchPossible = gincost_scalararrayopexpr(index,
                                                (ScalarArrayOpExpr *) clause,
                                                      numEntries,
                                                      &counts);
            if (!matchPossible)
                break;
        }
        else
        {
            /* shouldn't be anything else for a GIN index */
            elog(ERROR, "unsupported GIN indexqual type: %d",
                 (int) nodeTag(clause));
        }
    }

    /* Fall out if there were any provably-unsatisfiable quals */
    if (!matchPossible)
    {
        *indexStartupCost = 0;
        *indexTotalCost = 0;
        *indexSelectivity = 0;
        PG_RETURN_VOID();
    }

    if (counts.haveFullScan || indexQuals == NIL)
    {
        /*
         * Full index scan will be required.  We treat this as if every key in
         * the index had been listed in the query; is that reasonable?
         */
        counts.partialEntries = 0;
        counts.exactEntries = numEntries;
        counts.searchEntries = numEntries;
    }

    /* Will we have more than one iteration of a nestloop scan? */
    outer_scans = loop_count;

    /*
     * Compute cost to begin scan, first of all, pay attention to pending
     * list.
     */
    entryPagesFetched = numPendingPages;

    /*
     * Estimate number of entry pages read.  We need to do
     * counts.searchEntries searches.  Use a power function as it should be,
     * but tuples on leaf pages usually is much greater. Here we include all
     * searches in entry tree, including search of first entry in partial
     * match algorithm
     */
    entryPagesFetched += ceil(counts.searchEntries * rint(pow(numEntryPages, 0.15)));

    /*
     * Add an estimate of entry pages read by partial match algorithm. It's a
     * scan over leaf pages in entry tree.  We haven't any useful stats here,
     * so estimate it as proportion.
     */
    entryPagesFetched += ceil(numEntryPages * counts.partialEntries / numEntries);

    /*
     * Partial match algorithm reads all data pages before doing actual scan,
     * so it's a startup cost. Again, we haven't any useful stats here, so,
     * estimate it as proportion
     */
    dataPagesFetched = ceil(numDataPages * counts.partialEntries / numEntries);

    /*
     * Calculate cache effects if more than one scan due to nestloops or array
     * quals.  The result is pro-rated per nestloop scan, but the array qual
     * factor shouldn't be pro-rated (compare genericcostestimate).
     */
    if (outer_scans > 1 || counts.arrayScans > 1)
    {
        entryPagesFetched *= outer_scans * counts.arrayScans;
        entryPagesFetched = index_pages_fetched(entryPagesFetched,
                                                (BlockNumber) numEntryPages,
                                                numEntryPages, root);
        entryPagesFetched /= outer_scans;
        dataPagesFetched *= outer_scans * counts.arrayScans;
        dataPagesFetched = index_pages_fetched(dataPagesFetched,
                                               (BlockNumber) numDataPages,
                                               numDataPages, root);
        dataPagesFetched /= outer_scans;
    }

    /*
     * Here we use random page cost because logically-close pages could be far
     * apart on disk.
     */
    *indexStartupCost = (entryPagesFetched + dataPagesFetched) * spc_random_page_cost;

    /*
     * Now we compute the number of data pages fetched while the scan
     * proceeds.
     */

    /* data pages scanned for each exact (non-partial) matched entry */
    dataPagesFetched = ceil(numDataPages * counts.exactEntries / numEntries);

    /*
     * Estimate number of data pages read, using selectivity estimation and
     * capacity of data page.
     */
    dataPagesFetchedBySel = ceil(*indexSelectivity *
                                 (numTuples / (BLCKSZ / SizeOfIptrData)));

    if (dataPagesFetchedBySel > dataPagesFetched)
    {
        /*
         * At least one of entries is very frequent and, unfortunately, we
         * couldn't get statistic about entries (only tsvector has such
         * statistics). So, we obviously have too small estimation of pages
         * fetched from data tree. Re-estimate it from known capacity of data
         * pages
         */
        dataPagesFetched = dataPagesFetchedBySel;
    }

    /* Account for cache effects, the same as above */
    if (outer_scans > 1 || counts.arrayScans > 1)
    {
        dataPagesFetched *= outer_scans * counts.arrayScans;
        dataPagesFetched = index_pages_fetched(dataPagesFetched,
                                               (BlockNumber) numDataPages,
                                               numDataPages, root);
        dataPagesFetched /= outer_scans;
    }

    /* And apply random_page_cost as the cost per page */
    *indexTotalCost = *indexStartupCost +
        dataPagesFetched * spc_random_page_cost;

    /*
     * Add on index qual eval costs, much as in genericcostestimate
     */
    cost_qual_eval(&index_qual_cost, indexQuals, root);
    qual_arg_cost = index_qual_cost.startup + index_qual_cost.per_tuple;
    cost_qual_eval(&index_qual_cost, indexOrderBys, root);
    qual_arg_cost += index_qual_cost.startup + index_qual_cost.per_tuple;
    qual_op_cost = cpu_operator_cost *
        (list_length(indexQuals) + list_length(indexOrderBys));
    qual_arg_cost -= qual_op_cost;
    if (qual_arg_cost < 0)      /* just in case... */
        qual_arg_cost = 0;

    *indexStartupCost += qual_arg_cost;
    *indexTotalCost += qual_arg_cost;
    *indexTotalCost += (numTuples * *indexSelectivity) * (cpu_index_tuple_cost + qual_op_cost);

    PG_RETURN_VOID();
}